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Lots of people have stereotypes about getting old, mostly about short, grumpy little elderly people who can hardly hear or see. The fact of the matter is that many people age with grace and dignity and are even enjoying the aging process! Here are a few tips to keep in mind so you can be one of those who are living the good life. At PeptideSciences.com were fervently engaged in the quest to uncover the exciting possibilities presented by the utilization of peptides in future therapeutic applications, and were dedicated to doing our utmost to provide only the best quality Sermorelinto researchers striving to unlock the potential of this extraordinary peptide. If you have any questions about in which and how to use sermorelin, you can get in touch with us at our web page. Click here

To keep the aging process healthy, continuously teach yourself new skills. The willingness to learn is important at any age.

A large part of healthy aging is forming lasting, caring relationships with others. Being involved in many community activities has been proven to promote a healthier and a longer life. When thinking about your social relationships, make sure that you surround yourself with people who are positive and who are willing to let you talk to them when you are feeling down.

Step up your fitness routine. As you get older, your body requires more time and energy to maintain its strength and flexibility. You should at least take 5 days out of every week to go on a thirty minute walk. Switch it up with strength workouts twice a week. Keeping your body fit and strong will help minimize the negative impacts of aging.

Whenever you can, spread peace and joy. Making others feel great and happy is going to, in turn, make you feel wonderful. It is not going to cost you anything, and happiness is one of the most priceless things that you can give to others, as well as yourself.

Look at life as a journey that should be enjoyed and explored. Set goals for yourself and take time to savor and reflect on your accomplishments.

Life is an adventure; enjoy and explore! Set milestones and goals for yourself. Reaching goals should be an ever evolving process.

Make sure to drink a lot of water. You can become dehydrated more quickly when you age, you should get enough water.

Get enough sleep every night. You should get about seven to eight hours. Sleep deprivation can wear your mind and body down, exacerbating issues like depression and heart disease.

When men and women age, it is very important to keep those hormones in balance. Hormonal imbalances are the root cause of many serious conditions from depression to insomnia to obesity. Your physician can help you find the best methods of balancing your hormones in order to increase your overall health in the coming years.

Have your blood pressure screened often. It is possible to have high blood pressure and not know it. It is sometimes known as the silent killer due to the lack of symptoms experienced by many people before an attack. Having high blood pressure can cause damage to various areas of your body and these risks increase with age, so be sure to have your blood pressure watched closely. By knowing what is going on with your body, if there happens to be a problem, it can be immediately addressed.

Have fun! You finally have the choice of how you want to spend your time, and the option to do whatever you want. Find ways to savor each day and to take advantage of whatever life brings.

It is totally understandable to plan for the earliest retirement you can manage, but you need to reserve a savings cushion for your possible medical needs. You do not want to have your fun spoiled by an unplanned health problem you do not have the reserves to pay for.

Make and keep regular appointments with your doctor and follow their orders. By keeping on top of things, you will be able to catch health issues early on and do something about it right away. When it comes to acne problems, the earlier you seek help, the easier it is to manage and treat the condition.

One way to guard against premature aging is to refrain from smoking. Smokers often develop wrinkles around their lips, which gives an appearance of a much older person. So, steer clear of cigarettes to keep your skin looking young and vibrant.

A good facial massage will do wonders for your facial skin and keep you from looking old. Massaging your face will bring up blood, and this will reduce puffiness and will make wrinkles disappear. Its easy to massage your face. Put all your fingers against your face except your thumb and pinky and move them clockwise.

No matter which tips you choose to use from this article, you can overcome aging. The methods you use are completely your decision. You must take responsibility for your health even as you are faced with these challenges. Do not allow yourself to become complacent; it is in your best interest to develop a lifestyle that will allow you to age gracefully.

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NandroloneClinical dataPronunciation[3]Trade names Deca-Durabolin (as ND) Durabolin (as NPP) Many others (see here)Synonyms 19-Nortestosterone 10-Nortestosterone Estr-4-en-17-ol-3-one Estrenolone / Oestrenolone 19-Norandrost-4-en-17-ol-3-one Norandrostenolone Nortestrionate / Nortestonate SG-4341[1][2]Pregnancycategory

O=C4C=C2/[C@@H]([C@H]1CC[C@@]3([C@@H](O)CC[C@H]3[C@@H]1CC2)C)CC4

Nandrolone, also known as 19-nortestosterone, is an androgen and anabolic steroid (AAS) which is used in the form of esters such as nandrolone decanoate (brand name Deca-Durabolin) and nandrolone phenylpropionate (brand name Durabolin).[1][11][8][12] Nandrolone esters are used in the treatment of anemias, wasting syndromes, osteoporosis, breast cancer, and for other indications.[8] They are not active by mouth and must be given by injection into muscle.[8][12]

Side effects of nandrolone esters include symptoms of masculinization like acne, increased hair growth, voice changes, and increased sexual desire.[8] They are synthetic androgens and anabolic steroids and hence are agonists of the androgen receptor (AR), the biological target of androgens like testosterone and dihydrotestosterone (DHT).[8][13] Nandrolone esters have strong anabolic effects and weak androgenic effects, which give them a mild side effect profile and make them especially suitable for use in women.[8][13] They are long-lasting prodrugs of nandrolone in the body.[8]

Nandrolone esters were first described and introduced for medical use in the late 1950s.[8] They are among the most widely used AAS worldwide.[8] In addition to their medical use, nandrolone esters are used to improve physique and performance, and are said to be the most widely used AAS for such purposes.[8][14] The drugs are controlled substances in many countries and so non-medical use is generally illicit.[8]

Nandrolone esters are used clinically, although increasingly rarely, for people in catabolic states with major burns, cancer, and AIDS, and an ophthalmological formulation was available to support cornea healing.[15]:134

The positive effects of nandrolone esters include muscle growth, appetite stimulation and increased red blood cell production,[medical citation needed] and bone density.[16] Clinical studies have shown them to be effective in treating anemia, osteoporosis and some forms of neoplasia including breast cancer, and also acts as progestin-based contraceptives.[citation needed]

Nandrolone sulfate has been used in an eye drop formulation as an ophthalmic medication.[1][11]

Nandrolone esters are used for physique- and performance-enhancing purposes by competitive athletes, bodybuilders, and powerlifters.[8]

Side effects of nandrolone esters include masculinization among others.[8]

Other side effects of high doses of nandrolone can include erectile dysfunction and cardiovascular damage, as well as several ailments resulting from the drug's effect of lowering levels of luteinizing hormone through negative feedback.[citation needed]

Nandrolone is an agonist of the AR, the biological target of androgens like testosterone and DHT. Unlike testosterone and certain other AAS, nandrolone is not potentiated in androgenic tissues like the scalp, skin, and prostate, hence deleterious effects in these tissues are lessened.[17] This is because nandrolone is metabolized by 5-reductase to the much weaker AR ligand 5-dihydronandrolone (DHN), which has both reduced affinity for the androgen receptor (AR) relative to nandrolone in vitro and weaker AR agonistic potency in vivo.[17] The lack of alkylation on the 17-carbon drastically reduces the hepatotoxic potential of nandrolone.[medical citation needed] Estrogen effects resulting from reaction with aromatase are also reduced due to lessened enzyme interaction,[18] but effects such as gynecomastia and reduced libido may still occur at sufficiently high doses.[citation needed]

In addition to its AR agonistic activity, unlike many other AAS, nandrolone is also a potent progestogen.[19] It binds to the progesterone receptor with approximately 22% of the affinity of progesterone.[19] The progestogenic activity of nandrolone serves to augment its antigonadotropic effects,[20][8] as antigonadotropic action is a known property of progestogens.[21][22]

Nandrolone has a very high ratio of anabolic to androgenic activity.[13] In fact, nandrolone-like AAS like nandrolone itself and trenbolone are said to have among the highest ratio of anabolic to androgenic effect of all AAS.[20] This is attributed to the fact that whereas testosterone is potentiated via conversion into dihydrotestosterone (DHT) in androgenic tissues, the opposite is true with nandrolone and similar AAS (i.e., other 19-nortestosterone derivatives).[13] As such, nandrolone-like AAS, namely nandrolone esters, are the most frequently used AAS in clinical settings in which anabolic effects are desired; for instance, in the treatment of AIDS-associated cachexia, severe burns, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.[20] However, AAS with a very high ratio of anabolic to androgenic action like nandrolone still have significant androgenic effects and can produce symptoms of masculinization like hirsutism and voice deepening in women and children with extended use.[13]

Nandrolone has very low affinity for human serum sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG), about 5% of that of testosterone and 1% of that of DHT.[23] It is metabolized by the enzyme 5-reductase, among others. Metabolites of nandrolone include 5-dihydronandrolone, 19-norandrosterone, and 19-noretiocholanolone, and these metabolites may be detected in urine.[24]

Nandrolone, also known as 19-nortestosterone (19-NT) or as estrenolone, as well as estra-4-en-17-ol-3-one or 19-norandrost-4-en-17-ol-3-one,[25] is a naturally occurring estrane (19-norandrostane) steroid and a derivative of testosterone (androst-4-en-17-ol-3-one).[1][11] It is specifically the C19 demethylated (nor) analogue of testosterone.[1][11] Nandrolone is an endogenous intermediate in the production of estradiol from testosterone via aromatase in mammals including humans and is present in the body naturally in trace amounts.[26] It can be detected during pregnancy in women.[27] Nandrolone esters have an ester such as decanoate or phenylpropionate attached at the C17 position.[1][11]

A variety of esters of nandrolone have been marketed and used medically.[1][11] The most commonly used esters are nandrolone decanoate and to a lesser extent nandrolone phenylpropionate. Examples of other nandrolone esters that have been marketed and used medically include nandrolone cyclohexylpropionate, nandrolone cypionate, nandrolone hexyloxyphenylpropionate, nandrolone laurate, nandrolone sulfate, and nandrolone undecanoate.[1][11][8]

Nandrolone is the parent compound of a large group of AAS. Notable examples include the non-17-alkylated trenbolone and the 17-alkylated ethylestrenol (ethylnandrol) and metribolone (R-1881), as well as the 17-alkylated designer steroids norboletone and tetrahydrogestrinone (THG). The following is list of derivatives of nandrolone that have been developed as AAS:[8]

Nandrolone, together with ethisterone (17-ethynyltestosterone), is also the parent compound of a large group of progestins, the norethisterone (17-ethynyl-19-nortestosterone) derivatives.[28][29] This family is subdivided into two groups: the estranes and the gonanes.[28] The estranes include norethisterone (norethindrone), norethisterone acetate, norethisterone enanthate, lynestrenol, etynodiol diacetate, and noretynodrel, while the gonanes include norgestrel, levonorgestrel, desogestrel, etonogestrel, gestodene, norgestimate, dienogest (actually a 17-cyanomethyl-19-nortestosterone derivative), and norelgestromin.[28]

The elaboration of a method for the reduction of aromatic rings to the corresponding dihydrobenzenes under controlled conditions by A. J. Birch opened a convenient route to compounds related to the putative 19-norprogesterone.

This reaction, now known as the Birch reduction,[33] is typified by the treatment of the monomethyl ether of estradiol (1) with a solution of lithium metal in liquid ammonia in the presence of alcohol as a proton source. Initial reaction constituents of 1,4-dimetalation of the most electron deficient positions of the aromatic ringin the case of an estrogen, the 1 and 4-positions. Rxn of the intermediate with the proton source leads to a dihydrobenzene; a special virtue of this sequence in steroids is the fact that the double bind at 2 is in effect becomes an enol ether moiety. Treatment of this product (2) with weak acid, oxalic acid for e.g., leads to the hydrolysis of the enol ether, producing ,-unconjugated ketone 3. Hydrolysis under more strenuous conditions (mineral acids) results in migration/conjugation of the olefin to yield nandrolone (4).

Nandrolone use is directly detectable in hair or indirectly detectable in urine by testing for the presence of 19-norandrosterone, a metabolite. The International Olympic Committee has set a limit of 2.0 g/L of 19-norandrosterone in urine as the upper limit,[36] beyond which an athlete is suspected of doping. In the largest nandrolone study performed on 621 athletes at the 1998 Nagano Olympic Games, no athlete tested over 0.4 g/L. 19-Norandrosterone was identified as a trace contaminant in commercial preparations of androstenedione, which until 2004 was available without a prescription as a dietary supplement in the U.S.[37][38][39][40]

A number of nandrolone cases in athletics occurred in 1999, which included high-profile athletes such as Merlene Ottey, Dieter Baumann and Linford Christie.[41] However, the following year the detection method for nandrolone at the time was proved to be faulty. Mark Richardson, a British Olympic relay runner who tested positive for the substance, gave a significant amount of urine samples in a controlled environment and delivered a positive test for the drug, demonstrating that false positives could occur, which led to an overhaul of his competitive ban.[42]

Heavy consumption of the essential amino acid lysine (as indicated in the treatment of cold sores) has allegedly shown false positives in some and was cited by American shotputter C. J. Hunter as the reason for his positive test, though in 2004 he admitted to a federal grand jury that he had injected nandrolone.[43] A possible cause of incorrect urine test results is the presence of metabolites from other AAS, though modern urinalysis can usually determine the exact AAS used by analyzing the ratio of the two remaining nandrolone metabolites. As a result of the numerous overturned verdicts, the testing procedure was reviewed by UK Sport. On October 5, 2007, three-time Olympic gold medalist for track and field Marion Jones admitted to use of the drug, and was sentenced to six months in jail for lying to a federal grand jury in 2000.[44]

Mass spectrometry is also used to detect small samples of nandrolone in urine samples, as it has a unique molar mass.

Nandrolone was first synthesized in 1950.[1][25][15]:130[45] It was first introduced, as nandrolone phenylpropionate, in 1959, and then as nandrolone decanoate in 1962, followed by additional esters.[46]

Nandrolone is the generic name of the drug and its INN, BAN, DCF, and DCIT.[1][11][2][47] The formal generic names of nandrolone esters include nandrolone cyclohexylpropionate (BANM), nandrolone cyclotate (USAN), nandrolone decanoate (USAN, USP, BANM, JAN), nandrolone laurate (BANM), nandrolone phenpropionate (USP), and nandrolone phenylpropionate (BANM, JAN).[1][11][2][47]

Nandrolone was probably among the first AAS to be used as a doping agent in sports in the 1960s. It has been banned at the Olympics since 1974.[15]:128 There are many known cases of doping in sports with nandrolone esters by professional athletes.

Nandrolone esters have been studied in several indications. They were intensively studied for osteoporosis, and increased calcium uptake and decreased bone loss, but caused virilization in about half of the women who took them and were mostly abandoned for this use when better drugs like the bisphosphonates became available.[48] They have also been studied in clinical trials for chronic kidney failure, aplastic anemia, and as male contraceptives.[15]:134

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Losing weight quickly is unhealthy for a number of reasons; the quickly weight loss is unlikely to stick for a long period of time, you're much less likely to take in 100% of the nutrients your body needs each day and your energy levels will plummet, impacting many areas of your life. When you think of losing weight as a temporary diet, you will lose it in an unhealthy manner. Weight loss should be thought of as a long term lifestyle change rather than a quick way of losing a few pounds for a party, beach trip or wedding.

1. Too Much Change. Losing weight at a healthy rate (1-2 pounds per week) already requires a lot of change. You have to cut calories, increase you physical activity and eat less of some of the foods you love. If you're starting a healthy weight loss plan, you typically spread this change out over a few weeks so you can build a solid foundation. When you try and lose weight at a pace quicker than two pounds per week (crash dieting), you won't have a lot of time to adjust. This will place a heavy strain on your body and will eventually force you to abandon your diet all together. Slow, steady change over time will lead to healthy habits, while quick changes will lead to temporary, unsustainable behaviors.

2. Not Enough Food. If you're trying to lose weight faster than the healthy pace, you'll find yourself eating close to nothing. Losing two pounds per week (healthy weight loss rate) requires a 1,000 calorie per day deficit. If you want to lose four pounds per week, you'll need to double your deficit to 2,000 calories per day. If your body burns 3,000 calories each day, you'll only be able to eat 1,000 calories to reach your weekly weight loss goal. Cutting too many calories out of your diet can have a detrimental effect on your metabolism. Your metabolism can be described as how much energy your body burns in a day to stay alive. It isn't set in stone and can be adjusted based on the environment you create (diet and exercise). Drastically cutting your calorie intake (required by quick weight loss) will slow your metabolism to a point where your calorie deficit is significantly smaller than what you planned it to be. You can cut your calories to the point of almost starving yourself but your body has the means to thwart your plans.

3. Yo-Yo Dieting. Yo-yo dieting is described as quick weight loss immediately followed by quick weight gain. With each bounce, your starting weight gets higher which means that over time, your weight will trend upward. Quick weight loss leads to this yo-yo pattern because the changes that you make to facilitate the weight loss is only sustainable for a very short period of time. Once your body says no more, you will go back to your old eating and exercise habits causing a quick return to your starting weight plus a little extra. Each time you yo-yo, you lose less weight and gain back more.

4. Nutrients. Each day, your body needs a certain amount of nutrients (vitamins, minerals, antioxidants, fiber). If you're on a normal and balanced diet, this isn't a big issue. When you start cutting calories, you're also giving your body less nutrients to work with. Eating less than the required amount of nutrients will negatively affect the way your body functions. Supplements are not as effective as food.

5. Energy and Exercise. To lose weight at a fast pace, you need to do a lot of exercising. Unfortunately, you won't get very far exercising while drastically cutting your calorie intake. Food (calories) fuels exercise. Exercise (and the recovery phase) is very energy intensive. Without enough nutrients to power the recovery phase, your muscles will get smaller and weaker making it even more difficult to workout. This will eventually make it difficult if not impossible to workout leading to the up swing of the yo-yo phase.

The Bottom Line

Rather than looking at your weight loss as purely a cosmetic problem, try and see it as it deals with your overall health. Making changes to your lifestyle that will improve your health in the long run will also help you lose weight. Weight loss that is associated with healthy, long term habits such as an improved exercise routine and a balanced diet is much more likely to stick when compared to weight loss that is achieved through crash dieting.

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Top 5 Reasons Losing Weight Quickly is Unhealthy

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Aggression is overt, often harmful, social interaction with the intention of inflicting damage or other unpleasantness upon another individual. It may occur either in retaliation or without provocation. In humans, frustration due to blocked goals can cause aggression. Human aggression can be classified into direct and indirect aggression, whilst the first is characterized by physical or verbal behavior intended to cause harm to someone, the second one is characterized by a behavior intended to harm social relations of an individual or a group.[1][2]

In definitions commonly used in the social sciences and behavioral sciences, aggression is a response by an individual that delivers something unpleasant to another person.[3] Some definitions include that the individual must intend to harm another person.[4] Predatory or defensive behavior between members of different species may not be considered aggression in the same sense.

Aggression can take a variety of forms, which may be expressed physically, or communicated verbally or non-verbally: including anti-predator aggression, defensive aggression (fear-induced), predatory aggression, dominance aggression, inter-male aggression, resident-intruder aggression, maternal aggression, species-specific aggression, sex-related aggression, territorial aggression, isolation-induced aggression, irritable aggression, and brain-stimulation-induced aggression (hypothalamus). There are two subtypes of human aggression: (1) controlled-instrumental subtype (purposeful or goal-oriented); and (2) reactive-impulsive subtype (often elicits uncontrollable actions that are inappropriate or undesirable). Aggression differs from what is commonly called assertiveness, although the terms are often used interchangeably among laypeople (as in phrases such as "an aggressive salesperson").[5]

Aggression can have adaptive benefits or negative effects. Aggressive behavior is an individual or collective social interaction that is a hostile behavior with the intention of inflicting damage or harm.[1][2] Two broad categories of aggression are commonly distinguished. One includes affective (emotional) and hostile, reactive, or retaliatory aggression that is a response to provocation, and the other includes instrumental, goal-oriented or predatory, in which aggression is used as a mean to achieve a goal.[6] An example of hostile aggression would be a person who punches someone who insulted him or her. An instrumental form of aggression would be armed robbery. Research on violence from a range of disciplines lend some support to a distinction between affective and predatory aggression.[7] However, some researchers question the usefulness of a hostile versus instrumental distinction in humans, despite its ubiquity in research, because most real-life cases involve mixed motives and interacting causes.[8]

A number of classifications and dimensions of aggression have been suggested. These depend on such things as whether the aggression is verbal or physical; whether or not it involves relational aggression such as covert bullying and social manipulation;[9] whether harm to others is intended or not; whether it is carried out actively or expressed passively; and whether the aggression is aimed directly or indirectly. Classification may also encompass aggression-related emotions (e.g. anger) and mental states (e.g. impulsivity, hostility).[10] Aggression may occur in response to non-social as well as social factors, and can have a close relationship with stress coping style.[11] Aggression may be displayed in order to intimidate.

The operative definition of aggression may be affected by moral or political views. Examples are the axiomatic moral view called the non-aggression principle and the political rules governing the behavior of one country toward another.[12] Likewise in competitive sports, or in the workplace, some forms of aggression may be sanctioned and others not (see Workplace aggression).[13] Aggressive behaviors are associated with adjustment problems and several psychopathological symptoms such as Antisocial Personality Disorder, Borderline Personality Disorder, and Intermittent Explosive Disorder.[14]

Biological approaches conceptualize aggression as an internal energy released by external stimuli, a product of evolution through natural selection, part of genetics, a product of hormonal fluctuations. Psychological approaches conceptualize aggression as a destructive instinct, a response to frustration, an affect excited by a negative stimulus, a result of observed learning of society and diversified reinforcement, a resultant of variables that affect personal and situational environments.[15][16]

The term aggression comes from the Latin word aggressio, meaning attack. The Latin was itself a joining of ad- and gradi-, which meant step at. The first known use dates back to 1611, in the sense of an unprovoked attack.[17] A psychological sense of "hostile or destructive behavior" dates back to a 1912 English translation of Sigmund Freud's writing.[18] Alfred Adler theorized about an "aggressive drive" in 1908. Child raising experts began to refer to aggression, rather than anger, from the 1930s.[19]

Ethologists study aggression as it relates to the interaction and evolution of animals in natural settings. In such settings aggression can involve bodily contact such as biting, hitting or pushing, but most conflicts are settled by threat displays and intimidating thrusts that cause no physical harm. This form of aggression may include the display of body size, antlers, claws or teeth; stereotyped signals including facial expressions; vocalizations such as bird song; the release of chemicals; and changes in coloration.[20] The term agonistic behaviour is sometimes used to refer to these forms of behavior.

Most ethologists believe that aggression confers biological advantages. Aggression may help an animal secure territory, including resources such as food and water. Aggression between males often occurs to secure mating opportunities, and results in selection of the healthier/more vigorous animal. Aggression may also occur for self-protection or to protect offspring.[21] Aggression between groups of animals may also confer advantage; for example, hostile behavior may force a population of animals into a new territory, where the need to adapt to a new environment may lead to an increase in genetic flexibility.[22]

The most apparent type of interspecific aggression is that observed in the interaction between a predator and its prey. However, according to many researchers, predation is not aggression. A cat does not hiss or arch its back when pursuing a rat, and the active areas in its hypothalamus resemble those that reflect hunger rather than those that reflect aggression.[23] However, others refer to this behavior as predatory aggression, and point out cases that resemble hostile behavior, such as mouse-killing by rats.[24] In aggressive mimicry a predator has the appearance of a harmless organism or object attractive to the prey; when the prey approaches, the predator attacks.

An animal defending against a predator may engage in either "fight or flight" or "tend and befriend" in response to predator attack or threat of attack, depending on its estimate of the predator's strength relative to its own. Alternative defenses include a range of antipredator adaptations, including alarm signals. An example of an alarm signal is nerol, a chemical which is found in the mandibular glands of Trigona fulviventris individuals.[25] Release of nerol by T. fulviventris individuals in the nest has been shown to decrease the number of individuals leaving the nest by fifty percent, as well as increasing aggressive behaviors like biting.[25] Alarm signals like nerol can also act as attraction signals; in T. fulviventris, individuals that have been captured by a predator may release nerol to attract nestmates, who will proceed to attack or bite the predator.[25]

Aggression between groups is determined partly by willingness to fight, which depends on a number of factors including numerical advantage, distance from home territories, how often the groups encounter each other, competitive abilities, differences in body size, and whose territory is being invaded.[26] Also, an individual is more likely to become aggressive if other aggressive group members are nearby.[27] One particular phenomenon the formation of coordinated coalitions that raid neighbouring territories to kill conspecifics has only been documented in two species in the animal kingdom: 'common' chimpanzees and humans.[28]

Aggression between conspecifics in a group typically involves access to resources and breeding opportunities. One of its most common functions is to establish a dominance hierarchy. This occurs in many species by aggressive encounters between contending males when they are first together in a common environment.[29] Usually the more aggressive animals become the more dominant.[30][31] In test situations, most of the conspecific aggression ceases about 24 hours after the group of animals is brought together.[29][32] Aggression has been defined from this viewpoint as "behavior which is intended to increase the social dominance of the organism relative to the dominance position of other organisms".[33] Losing confrontations may be called social defeat, and winning or losing is associated with a range of practical and psychological consequences.[34]

Conflicts between animals occur in many contexts, such as between potential mating partners, between parents and offspring, between siblings and between competitors for resources. Group-living animals may dispute over the direction of travel or the allocation of time to joint activities. Various factors limit the escalation of aggression, including communicative displays, conventions, and routines. In addition, following aggressive incidents, various forms of conflict resolution have been observed in mammalian species, particularly in gregarious primates. These can mitigate or repair possible adverse consequences, especially for the recipient of aggression who may become vulnerable to attacks by other members of a group. Conciliatory acts vary by species and may involve specific gestures or simply more proximity and interaction between the individuals involved. However, conflicts over food are rarely followed by post conflict reunions, even though they are the most frequent type in foraging primates.[35]

Other questions that have been considered in the study of primate aggression, including in humans, is how aggression affects the organization of a group, what costs are incurred by aggression, and why some primates avoid aggressive behavior.[36] For example, bonobo chimpanzee groups are known for low levels of aggression within a partially matriarchal society. Captive animals including primates may show abnormal levels of social aggression and self-harm that are related to aspects of the physical or social environment; this depends on the species and individual factors such as gender, age and background (e.g. raised wild or captive).[37]

Like many behaviors, aggression can be examined in terms of its ability to help an animal itself survive and reproduce, or alternatively to risk survival and reproduction. This cost-benefit analysis can be looked at in terms of evolution. However, there are profound differences in the extent of acceptance of a biological or evolutionary basis for human aggression.[38]

According to the male warrior hypothesis, intergroup aggression represents an opportunity for men to gain access to mates, territory, resources and increased status. As such, conflicts may have created selection evolutionary pressures for psychological mechanisms in men to initiate intergroup aggression.[39][40]

Aggression can involve violence that may be adaptive under certain circumstances in terms of natural selection. This is most obviously the case in terms of attacking prey to obtain food, or in anti-predatory defense. It may also be the case in competition between members of the same species or subgroup, if the average reward (e.g. status, access to resources, protection of self or kin) outweighs average costs (e.g. injury, exclusion from the group, death). There are some hypotheses of specific adaptions for violence in humans under certain circumstances, including for homicide, but it is often unclear what behaviors may have been selected for and what may have been a byproduct, as in the case of collective violence.[41][42][43][44]

Although aggressive encounters are ubiquitous in the animal kingdom, with often high stakes, most encounters that involve aggression may be resolved through posturing, or displaying and trial of strength. Game theory is used to understand how such behaviors might spread by natural selection within a population, and potentially become 'Evolutionary Stable Strategies'. An initial model of resolution of conflicts is the hawk-dove game. Others include the Sequential assessment model and the Energetic war of attrition. These try to understand not just one-off encounters but protracted stand-offs, and mainly differ in the criteria by which an individual decides to give up rather than risk loss and harm in physical conflict (such as through estimates of resource holding potential).[45]

Gender plays an important role in human aggression. There are multiple theories that seek to explain findings that males and females of the same species can have differing aggressive behaviors. However the conditions under which women and men differ in aggressiveness are not well understood or studied.[46]

In general, sexual dimorphism can be attributed to greater intraspecific competition in one sex, either between rivals for access to mates and/or to be chosen by mates. This may stem from the other gender being constrained by providing greater parental investment, in terms of factors such as gamete production, gestation, lactation, or upbringing of young. Although there is much variation in species, generally the more physically aggressive sex is the male, particularly in mammals. In species where parental care by both sexes is required, there tends to be less of a difference. When the female can leave the male to care for the offspring, then females may be the larger and more physically aggressive. Competitiveness despite parental investment has also been observed in some species.[47] A related factor is the rate at which males and females are able to mate again after producing offspring, and the basic principles of sexual selection are also influenced by ecological factors affecting the ways or extent to which one sex can compete for the other. The role of such factors in human evolution is controversial.

The pattern of male and female aggression is argued to be consistent with evolved sexually-selected behavioral differences, while alternative or complimentary views emphasize conventional social roles stemming from physical evolved differences.[48] Aggression in women may have evolved to be, on average, less physically dangerous and more covert or indirect.[49][50] However, there are critiques for using animal behavior to explain human behavior. Especially in the application of evolutionary explanations to contemporary human behavior, including differences between the genders.[51]

According to the 2015 International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, sex differences in aggression is one of the most robust and oldest findings in psychology.[52] Past meta-analyses in the encyclopedia found males regardless of age engaged in more physical and verbal aggression while small effect for females engaging in more indirect aggression such as rumor spreading or gossiping.[52] It also found males tend to engage in more unprovoked aggression at higher frequency than females.[52] This analysis also conforms with the Oxford Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology which reviewed past analysis which found men to use more verbal and physical aggression with the difference being greater in the physical type.[53] There are more recent findings that show that differences in male and female aggression appear at about two years of age, though the differences in aggression are more consistent in middle-aged children and adolescence. Tremblay, Japel and Prusse (1999) asserted that physically aggressive behaviors such as kicking, biting and hitting are age-typical expressions of innate and spontaneous reactions to biological drives such as anger, hunger, and affiliation.[54] Girls' relational aggression, meaning non-physical or indirect, tends to increase after age two while physical aggression decreases. There was no significant difference in aggression between males and females before two years of age.[55] A possible explanation for this could be that girls develop language skills more quickly than boys, therefore they have better ways of verbalizing their wants and needs. They are more likely to use communication when trying to retrieve a toy with the words "Ask nicely" or "Say please."[56]

According to the journal of Aggressive Behaviour, an analysis across 9 countries found boys reported more in the use of physical aggression.[55] At the same time no consistent sex differences emerged within relational aggression.[55] It has been found that girls are more likely than boys to use reactive aggression and then retract, but boys are more likely to increase rather than to retract their aggression after their first reaction. Studies show girls' aggressive tactics included gossip, ostracism, breaking confidences, and criticism of a victim's clothing, appearance, or personality, whereas boys engage in aggression that involves a direct physical and/or verbal assault.[57] This could be due to the fact that girls' frontal lobes develop earlier than boys, allowing them to self-restrain.[56]

One factor that shows insignificant differences between male and female aggression is in sports. In sports, the rate of aggression in both contact and non-contact sports is relatively equal. Since the establishment of Title IX, female sports have increased in competitiveness and importance, which could contribute to the evening of aggression and the "need to win" attitude between both genders. Among sex differences found in adult sports were that females have a higher scale of indirect hostility while men have a higher scale of assault.[58] Another difference found is that men have up to 20 times higher levels of testosterone than women.

Some studies suggest that romantic involvement in adolescence decreases aggression in males and females, but decreases at a higher rate in females. Females will seem more desirable to their mate if they fit in with society and females that are aggressive do not usually fit well in society, they can often be viewed as antisocial. Female aggression is not considered the norm in society and going against the norm can sometimes prevent one from getting a mate.[59] However, studies have shown that an increasing number of women are getting arrested for domestic violence charges. In many states, women now account for a quarter to a third of all domestic violence arrests, up from less than 10 percent a decade ago. The new statistics reflect a reality documented in research: women are perpetrators as well as victims of family violence.[60] However, another equally possible explanation is a case of improved diagnostics: it has become more acceptable for men to report female domestic violence to the authorities while at the same time actual female domestic violence has not increased at all. This can be the case when men have become less ashamed of reporting female violence against them, therefore an increasing number of women are arrested, although the actual number of violent women remains the same.

In addition, males in competitive sports are often advised by their coaches not to be in intimate relationships based on the premises that they become more docile and less aggressive during an athletic event. The circumstances in which males and females experience aggression are also different. A study showed that social anxiety and stress was positively correlated with aggression in males, meaning as stress and social anxiety increases so does aggression. Furthermore, a male with higher social skills has a lower rate of aggressive behavior than a male with lower social skills. In females, higher rates of aggression were only correlated with higher rates of stress. Other than biological factors that contribute to aggression there are physical factors are well.[61]

Regarding sexual dimorphism, humans fall into an intermediate group with moderate sex differences in body size but relatively large testes. This is a typical pattern of primates where several males and females live together in a group and the male faces an intermediate number of challenges from other males compared to exclusive polygyny and monogamy but frequent sperm competition.[62]

Evolutionary psychology and sociobiology have also discussed and produced theories for some specific forms of male aggression such as sociobiological theories of rape and theories regarding the Cinderella effect. Another evolutionary theory explaining gender differences in aggression is the Male Warrior hypothesis, which explains that males have psychologically evolved for intergroup aggression in order to gain access to mates, resources, territory and status.[39][40]

Many researchers focus on the brain to explain aggression. Numerous circuits within both neocortical and subcortical structures play a central role in controlling aggressive behavior, depending on the species, and the exact role of pathways may vary depending on the type of trigger or intention.[63][2]

In mammals, the hypothalamus and periaqueductal gray of the midbrain are critical areas, as shown in studies on cats, rats, and monkeys. These brain areas control the expression of both behavioral and autonomic components of aggression in these species, including vocalization. Electrical stimulation of the hypothalamus causes aggressive behavior[64] and the hypothalamus has receptors that help determine aggression levels based on their interactions with serotonin and vasopressin.[65] These midbrain areas have direct connections with both the brainstem nuclei controlling these functions, and with structures such as the amygdala and prefrontal cortex.

Stimulation of the amygdala results in augmented aggressive behavior in hamsters,[66][67] while lesions of an evolutionarily homologous area in the lizard greatly reduce competitive drive and aggression (Bauman et al. 2006).[68] In rhesus monkeys, neonatal lesions in the amygdala or hippocampus results in reduced expression of social dominance, related to the regulation of aggression and fear.[69] Several experiments in attack-primed Syrian golden hamsters, for example, support the claim of circuity within the amygdala being involved in control of aggression.[67] The role of the amygdala is less clear in primates and appears to depend more on situational context, with lesions leading to increases in either social affiliatory or aggressive responses.

The broad area of the cortex known as the prefrontal cortex (PFC) is crucial for self-control and inhibition of impulses, including inhibition of aggression and emotions. Reduced activity of the prefrontal cortex, in particular its medial and orbitofrontal portions, has been associated with violent/antisocial aggression.[70] In addition, reduced response inhibition has been found in violent offenders, compared to non-violent offenders.[63]

The role of the chemicals in the brain, particularly neurotransmitters, in aggression has also been examined. This varies depending on the pathway, the context and other factors such as gender. A deficit in serotonin has been theorized to have a primary role in causing impulsivity and aggression. At least one epigenetic study supports this supposition.[71] Nevertheless, low levels of serotonin transmission may explain a vulnerability to impulsiveness, potential aggression, and may have an effect through interactions with other neurochemical systems. These include dopamine systems which are generally associated with attention and motivation toward rewards, and operate at various levels. Norepinephrine, also known as noradrenaline, may influence aggression responses both directly and indirectly through the hormonal system, the sympathetic nervous system or the central nervous system (including the brain). It appears to have different effects depending on the type of triggering stimulus, for example social isolation/rank versus shock/chemical agitation which appears not to have a linear relationship with aggression. Similarly, GABA, although associated with inhibitory functions at many CNS synapses, sometimes shows a positive correlation with aggression, including when potentiated by alcohol.[72][73]

The hormonal neuropeptides vasopressin and oxytocin play a key role in complex social behaviours in many mammals such as regulating attachment, social recognition, and aggression. Vasopressin has been implicated in male-typical social behaviors which includes aggression. Oxytocin may have a particular role in regulating female bonds with offspring and mates, including the use of protective aggression. Initial studies in humans suggest some similar effects.[74][75]

In human, aggressive behavior has been associated with abnormalities in three principal regulatory systems in the body serotonin systems, catecholamine systems, and the hypothalamicpituitaryadrenal axis. Abnormalities in these systems also are known to be induced by stress, either severe, acute stress or chronic low-grade stress[76]

In humans, there is a seasonal variation in aggression associated with changes in testosterone.[79] For example, in some primate species, such as rhesus monkeys and baboons, females are more likely to engage in fights around the time of ovulation as well as right before menstruation.[77] If the results were the same in humans as they are in rhesus monkeys and baboons, then the increase in aggressive behaviors during ovulation is explained by the decline in estrogen levels. This makes normal testosterone levels more effective.[80] Castrated mice and rats exhibit lower levels of aggression. Males castrated as neonates exhibit low levels of aggression even when given testosterone throughout their development.

The challenge hypothesis outlines the dynamic relationship between plasma testosterone levels and aggression in mating contexts in many species. It proposes that testosterone is linked to aggression when it is beneficial for reproduction, such as in mate guarding and preventing the encroachment of intrasexual rivals. The challenge hypothesis predicts that seasonal patterns in testosterone levels in a species are a function of mating system (monogamy versus polygyny), paternal care, and male-male aggression in seasonal breeders. This pattern between testosterone and aggression was first observed in seasonally breeding birds, such as the song sparrow, where testosterone levels rise modestly with the onset of the breeding season to support basic reproductive functions.[81] The hypothesis has been subsequently expanded and modified to predict relationships between testosterone and aggression in other species. For example, chimpanzees, which are continuous breeders, show significantly raised testosterone levels and aggressive male-male interactions when receptive and fertile females are present.[82] Currently, no research has specified a relationship between the modified challenge hypothesis and human behavior, or the human nature of concealed ovulation, although some suggest it may apply.[79]

Another line of research has focused on the proximate effects of circulating testosterone on the nervous system, as mediated by local metabolism within the brain. Testosterone can be metabolized to 17b-estradiol by the enzyme aromatase, or to 5-alpha-dihydrotestosterone (DHT) by 5a-reductase.[83]

Aromatase is highly expressed in regions involved in the regulation of aggressive behavior, such as the amygdala and hypothalamus. In studies using genetic knock-out techniques in inbred mice, male mice that lacked a functional aromatase enzyme displayed a marked reduction in aggression. Long-term treatment with estradiol partially restored aggressive behavior, suggesting that the neural conversion of circulating testosterone to estradiol and its effect on estrogen receptors influences inter-male aggression. In addition, two different estrogen receptors, ERa and ERb, have been identified as having the ability to exert different effects on aggression in mice. However, the effect of estradiol appears to vary depending on the strain of mouse, and in some strains it reduces aggression during long days (16 h of light), while during short days (8 h of light) estradiol rapidly increases aggression.[83]

Another hypothesis is that testosterone influences brain areas that control behavioral reactions. Studies in animal models indicate that aggression is affected by several interconnected cortical and subcortical structures within the so-called social behavior network. A study involving lesions and electrical-chemical stimulation in rodents and cats revealed that such a neural network consists of the medial amygdala, medial hypothalamus and periaqueductal grey (PAG), and it positively modulates reactive aggression.[84] Moreover, a study done in human subjects showed that prefrontal-amygdala connectivity is modulated by endogenous testosterone during social emotional behavior.[85]

In human studies, testosterone-aggression research has also focused on the role of the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC). This brain area is strongly associated with impulse control and self-regulation systems that integrate emotion, motivation, and cognition to guide context-appropriate behavior.[86] Patients with localized lesions to the OFC engage in heightened reactive aggression.[87] Aggressive behavior may be regulated by testosterone via reduced medial OFC engagement following social provocation.[86] When measuring participants' salivary testosterone, higher levels can predict subsequent aggressive behavioral reactions to unfairness faced during a task. Moreover, brain scanning with fMRI shows reduced activity in the medial OFC during such reactions. Such findings may suggest that a specific brain region, the OFC, is a key factor in understanding reactive aggression.

Scientists have for a long time been interested in the relationship between testosterone and aggressive behavior. In most species, males are more aggressive than females. Castration of males usually has a pacifying effect on aggressive behavior in males. In humans, males engage in crime and especially violent crime more than females. The involvement in crime usually rises in the early teens to mid teens which happen at the same time as testosterone levels rise. Research on the relationship between testosterone and aggression is difficult since the only reliable measurement of brain testosterone is by a lumbar puncture which is not done for research purposes. Studies therefore have often instead used more unreliable measurements from blood or saliva.[88]

The Handbook of Crime Correlates, a review of crime studies, states most studies support a link between adult criminality and testosterone although the relationship is modest if examined separately for each sex. However, nearly all studies of juvenile delinquency and testosterone are not significant. Most studies have also found testosterone to be associated with behaviors or personality traits linked with criminality such as antisocial behavior and alcoholism. Many studies have also been done on the relationship between more general aggressive behavior/feelings and testosterone. About half the studies have found a relationship and about half no relationship.[88]

Studies of testosterone levels of male athletes before and after a competition revealed that testosterone levels rise shortly before their matches, as if in anticipation of the competition, and are dependent on the outcome of the event: testosterone levels of winners are high relative to those of losers. No specific response of testosterone levels to competition was observed in female athletes, although a mood difference was noted.[89] In addition, some experiments have failed to find a relationship between testosterone levels and aggression in humans.[90][14][91]

The possible correlation between testosterone and aggression could explain the "roid rage" that can result from anabolic steroid use,[92][93] although an effect of abnormally high levels of steroids does not prove an effect at physiological levels.

Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) is the most abundant circulating androgen hormone and can be rapidly metabolized within target tissues into potent androgens and estrogens. Gonadal steroids generally regulate aggression during the breeding season, but non-gonadal steroids may regulate aggression during the non-breeding season. Castration of various species in the non-breeding season has no effect on territorial aggression. In several avian studies, circulating DHEA has been found to be elevated in birds during the non-breeding season. These data support the idea that non-breeding birds combine adrenal and/or gonadal DHEA synthesis with neural DHEA metabolism to maintain territorial behavior when gonadal testosterone secretion is low. Similar results have been found in studies involving different strains of rats, mice, and hamsters. DHEA levels also have been studied in humans and may play a role in human aggression. Circulating DHEAS (its sulfated ester) levels rise during adrenarche (~7 years of age) while plasma testosterone levels are relatively low. This implies that aggression in pre-pubertal children with aggressive conduct disorder might be correlated with plasma DHEAS rather than plasma testosterone, suggesting an important link between DHEAS and human aggressive behavior.[83]

Glucocorticoid hormones have an important role in regulating aggressive behavior. In adult rats, acute injections of corticosterone promote aggressive behavior and acute reduction of corticosterone decreases aggression; however, a chronic reduction of corticosterone levels can produce abnormally aggressive behavior. In addition, glucocorticoids affect development of aggression and establishment of social hierarchies. Adult mice with low baseline levels of corticosterone are more likely to become dominant than are mice with high baseline corticosterone levels.[83]

Glucocorticoids are released by the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis in response to stress, of which cortisol is the most prominent in humans. Results in adults suggest that reduced levels of cortisol, linked to lower fear or a reduced stress response, can be associated with more aggression. However, it may be that proactive aggression is associated with low cortisol levels while reactive aggression may be accompanied by elevated levels. Differences in assessments of cortisol may also explain a diversity of results, particularly in children.[78]

The HPA axis is related to the general fight-or-flight response or acute stress reaction, and the role of catecholamines such as epinephrine, popularly known as adrenaline.

In many animals, aggression can be linked to pheromones released between conspecifics. In mice, major urinary proteins (Mups) have been demonstrated to promote innate aggressive behavior in males,[94][95] and can be mediated by neuromodulatory systems.[96] Mups activate olfactory sensory neurons in the vomeronasal organ (VNO), a subsystem of the nose known to detect pheromones via specific sensory receptors, of mice[95] and rats.[97] Pheremones have also been identified in fruit flies, detected by neurons in the antenna, that send a message to the brain eliciting aggression; it has been noted that aggression pheremones have not been identified in humans.[98]

In general, differences in a continuous phenotype such as aggression are likely to result from the action of a large number of genes each of small effect, which interact with each other and the environment through development and life.

In a non-mammalian example of genes related to aggression, the fruitless gene in fruit flies is a critical determinant of certain sexually dimorphic behaviors, and its artificial alteration can result in a reversal of stereotypically male and female patterns of aggression in fighting. However, in what was thought to be a relatively clear case, inherent complexities have been reported in deciphering the connections between interacting genes in an environmental context and a social phenotype involving multiple behavioral and sensory interactions with another organism.[99]

In mice, candidate genes for differentiating aggression between the sexes are the Sry (sex determining region Y) gene, located on the Y chromosome and the Sts (steroid sulfatase) gene. The Sts gene encodes the steroid sulfatase enzyme, which is pivotal in the regulation of neurosteroid biosynthesis. It is expressed in both sexes, is correlated with levels of aggression among male mice, and increases dramatically in females after parturition and during lactation, corresponding to the onset of maternal aggression.[67] At least one study has found a possible epigenetic signature (i.e. decreased methylation at a specific CpG site on the promoter region) of the serotonin receptor 5-HT3a that is associated with maternal aggression among human subjects.[71]

In humans, there is good evidence that the basic human neural architecture underpinning the potential for flexible aggressive responses is influenced by genes as well as environment. In terms of variation between individual people, more than 100 twin and adoption studies have been conducted in recent decades examining the genetic basis of aggressive behavior and related constructs such as conduct disorders. According to a meta-analysis published in 2002, approximately 40% of variation between individuals is explained by differences in genes, and 60% by differences in environment (mainly non-shared environmental influences rather than those that would be shared by being raised together). However, such studies have depended on self-report or observation by others including parents, which complicates interpretation of the results. The few laboratory-based analyses have not found significant amounts of individual variation in aggression explicable by genetic variation in the human population. Furthermore, linkage and association studies that seek to identify specific genes, for example that influence neurotransmitter or hormone levels, have generally resulted in contradictory findings characterized by failed attempts at replication. One possible factor is an allele (variant) of the MAO-A gene which, in interaction with certain life events such as childhood maltreatment (which may show a main effect on its own), can influence development of brain regions such as the amygdala and as a result some types of behavioral response may be more likely. The generally unclear picture has been compared to equally difficult findings obtained in regard to other complex behavioral phenotypes.[100][101] For example, both 7R and 5R, ADHD-linked VNTR alleles of dopamine receptor D4 gene are directly associated with the incidence of proactive aggression in the men with no history of ADHD.[102]

Humans share aspects of aggression with non-human animals, and have specific aspects and complexity related to factors such as genetics, early development, social learning and flexibility, culture and morals. Konrad Lorenz stated in his 1963 classic, On Aggression, that human behavior is shaped by four main, survival-seeking animal drives. Taken together, these driveshunger, fear, reproduction, and aggressionachieve natural selection.[103] E. O. Wilson elaborated in On Human Nature that aggression is, typically, a means of gaining control over resources. Aggression is, thus, aggravated during times when high population densities generate resource shortages.[104] According to Richard Leakey and his colleagues, aggression in humans has also increased by becoming more interested in ownership and by defending his or her property.[105] However, UNESCO adopted the Seville Statement of Violence in 1989 that refuted claims, by evolutionary scientists, that genetics by itself was the sole cause of aggression.[106][107]

Social and cultural aspects may significantly interfere with the distinct expression of aggressiveness. For example, a high population density, when associated with a decrease of available resources, might be a significant intervening variable for the occurrence of violent acts.[108]

Many scholars assert that culture is one factor that plays a role in aggression. Tribal or band societies existing before or outside of modern states have sometimes been depicted as peaceful 'noble savages'. The Kung people were described as 'The Harmless People' in a popular work by Elizabeth Marshall Thomas in 1958,[109] while Lawrence Keeley's 1996 War Before Civilization suggested that regular warfare without modern technology was conducted by most groups throughout human history, including most Native American tribes.[110] Studies of hunter-gatherers show a range of different societies. In general, aggression, conflict and violence sometimes occur, but direct confrontation is generally avoided and conflict is socially managed by a variety of verbal and non-verbal methods. Different rates of aggression or violence, currently or in the past, within or between groups, have been linked to the structuring of societies and environmental conditions influencing factors such as resource or property acquisition, land and subsistence techniques, and population change.[111]

American psychologist Peter Gray hypothesizes that band hunter-gatherer societies are able to reduce aggression while maintaining relatively peaceful, egalitarian relations between members through various methods, such as fostering a playful spirit in all areas of life, the use of humor to counter the tendency of any one person to dominate the group, and non-coercive or "indulgent" child-rearing practices. Gray likens hunter-gatherer bands to social play groups, while stressing that such play is not frivolous or even easy at all times.[112] According to Gray, "Social playthat is, play involving more than one playeris necessarily egalitarian. It always requires a suspension of aggression and dominance along with a heightened sensitivity to the needs and desires of the other players".[113]

Joan Durrant at the University of Manitoba writes that a number of studies have found physical punishment to be associated with "higher levels of aggression against parents, siblings, peers and spouses", even when controlling for other factors.[114] According to Elizabeth Gershoff at the University of Texas at Austin, the more that children are physically punished, the more likely they are as adults to act violently towards family members, including intimate partners.[115] In countries where physical punishment of children is perceived as being more culturally accepted, it is less strongly associated with increased aggression; however, physical punishment has been found to predict some increase in child aggression regardless of culture.[116] While these associations do not prove causality, a number of longitudinal studies suggest that the experience of physical punishment has a direct causal effect on later aggressive behaviors.[114] In examining several longitudinal studies that investigated the path from disciplinary spanking to aggression in children from preschool age through adolescence, Gershoff concluded: "Spanking consistently predicted increases in children's aggression over time, regardless of how aggressive children were when the spanking occurred".[117] similar results were found by Catherine Taylor at Tulane University in 2010.[118] Family violence researcher Murray A. Straus argues, "There are many reasons this evidence has been ignored. One of the most important is the belief that spanking is more effective than nonviolent discipline and is, therefore, sometimes necessary, despite the risk of harmful side effects".[119]

Analyzing aggression culturally or politically is complicated by the fact that the label 'aggressive' can itself be used as a way of asserting a judgement from a particular point of view.[according to whom?] Whether a coercive or violent method of social control is perceived as aggression or as legitimate versus illegitimate aggression depends on the position of the relevant parties in relation to the social order of their culture. This in turn can relate to factors such as: norms for coordinating actions and dividing resources; what is considered self-defense or provocation; attitudes towards 'outsiders', attitudes towards specific groups such as women, the disabled or the lower status; the availability of alternative conflict resolution strategies; trade interdependence and collective security pacts; fears and impulses; and ultimate goals regarding material and social outcomes.[108]

Cross-cultural research has found differences in attitudes towards aggression in different cultures. In one questionnaire study of university students, in addition to men overall justifying some types of aggression more than women, United States respondents justified defensive physical aggression more readily than Japanese or Spanish respondents, whereas Japanese students preferred direct verbal aggression (but not indirect) more than their American and Spanish counterparts.[120] Within American culture, southern men were shown in a study on university students to be more affected and to respond more aggressively than northerners when randomly insulted after being bumped into, which was theoretically related to a traditional culture of honor in the Southern United States.[121] A similar sociological concept that may be applied in different cultures is 'face'. Other cultural themes sometimes applied to the study of aggression include individualistic versus collectivist styles, which may relate, for example, to whether disputes are responded to with open competition or by accommodating and avoiding conflicts. In a study including 62 countries school principals reported aggressive student behavior more often the more individualist, and hence less collectivist, their country's culture.[122] Other comparisons made in relation to aggression or war include democratic versus authoritarian political systems and egalitarian versus stratified societies.[108] The economic system known as capitalism has been viewed by some as reliant on the leveraging of human competitiveness and aggression in pursuit of resources and trade, which has been considered in both positive and negative terms.[123] Attitudes about the social acceptability of particular acts or targets of aggression are also important factors. This can be highly controversial, as for example in disputes between religions or nation states, for example in regard to the ArabIsraeli conflict.[124][125]

Some scholars believe that behaviors like aggression may be partially learned by watching and imitating people's behavior, while other researchers have concluded that the media may have some small effects on aggression.[126] There is also research questioning this view.[127] For instance, a long-term outcome study of youth found no long-term relationship between playing violent video games and youth violence or bullying.[128] One study suggested there is a smaller effect of violent video games on aggression than has been found with television violence on aggression. This effect is positively associated with type of game violence and negatively associated to time spent playing the games.[129] The author concluded that insufficient evidence exists to link video game violence with aggression. However, another study suggested links to aggressive behavior.[130]

According to philosopher and neuroscientist Nayef Al-Rodhan, "fear(survival)-induced pre-emptive aggression" is a human reaction to injustices that are perceived to threaten survival. It is often the root of the unthinkable brutality and injustice perpetuated by human beings. It may occur at any time, even in situations that appear to be calm and under control. Where there is injustice that is perceived as posing a threat to survival, "fear(survival)-induced pre-emptive aggression" will result in individuals taking whatever action necessary to be free from that threat.

Nayef Al-Rodhan argues that humans' strong tendency towards "fear(survival)-induced pre-emptive aggression" means that situations of anarchy or near anarchy should be prevented at all costs. This is because anarchy provokes fear, which in turn results in aggression, brutality, and injustice. Even in non-anarchic situations, survival instincts and fear can be very powerful forces, and they may be incited instantaneously. "Fear(survival)-induced pre-emptive aggression" is one of the key factors that may push naturally amoral humans to behave in immoral ways.[131] Knowing this, Al-Rodhan maintains that we must prepare for the circumstances that may arise from humans' aggressive behavior. According to Al-Rodhan, the risk of this aggression and its ensuing brutality should be minimized through confidence-building measures and policies that promote inclusiveness and prevent anarchy.[132]

The frequency of physical aggression in humans peaks at around 23 years of age. It then declines gradually on average.[133][134] These observations suggest that physical aggression is not only a learned behavior but that development provides opportunities for the learning and biological development of self-regulation. However, a small subset of children fail to acquire all the necessary self-regulatory abilities and tend to show atypical levels of physical aggression across development. These may be at risk for later violent behavior or, conversely, lack of aggression that may be considered necessary within society. Some findings suggest that early aggression does not necessarily lead to aggression later on, however, although the course through early childhood is an important predictor of outcomes in middle childhood. In addition, physical aggression that continues is likely occurring in the context of family adversity, including socioeconomic factors. Moreover, 'opposition' and 'status violations' in childhood appear to be more strongly linked to social problems in adulthood than simply aggressive antisocial behavior.[135][136] Social learning through interactions in early childhood has been seen as a building block for levels of aggression which play a crucial role in the development of peer relationships in middle childhood.[137] Overall, an interplay of biological, social and environmental factors can be considered.[138]

The Bobo doll experiment was conducted by Albert Bandura in 1961. In this work, Bandura found that children exposed to an aggressive adult model acted more aggressively than those who were exposed to a nonaggressive adult model. This experiment suggests that anyone who comes in contact with and interacts with children can affect the way they react and handle situations.[139]

Gender is a factor that plays a role in both human and animal aggression. Males are historically believed to be generally more physically aggressive than females from an early age,[142][143] and men commit the vast majority of murders (Buss 2005). This is one of the most robust and reliable behavioral sex differences, and it has been found across many different age groups and cultures. However, some empirical studies have found the discrepancy in male and female aggression to be more pronounced in childhood and the gender difference in adults to be modest when studied in an experimental context.[46] Still, there is evidence that males are quicker to aggression (Frey et al. 2003) and more likely than females to express their aggression physically.[144] When considering indirect forms of non-violent aggression, such as relational aggression and social rejection, some scientists argue that females can be quite aggressive, although female aggression is rarely expressed physically.[145][146][147] An exception is intimate partner violence that occurs among couples who are engaged, married, or in some other form of intimate relationship. In such cases, some research suggests that women are more physically aggressive than men, although differences are small and men are less likely to be injured than women are.[148]

Although females are less likely than males to initiate physical violence, they can express aggression by using a variety of non-physical means. Exactly which method women use to express aggression is something that varies from culture to culture. On Bellona Island, a culture based on male dominance and physical violence, women tend to get into conflicts with other women more frequently than with men. When in conflict with males, instead of using physical means, they make up songs mocking the man, which spread across the island and humiliate him. If a woman wanted to kill a man, she would either convince her male relatives to kill him or hire an assassin. Although these two methods involve physical violence, both are forms of indirect aggression, since the aggressor herself avoids getting directly involved or putting herself in immediate physical danger.[149]

See also the sections on testosterone and evolutionary explanations for gender differences above.

There has been some links between those prone to violence and their alcohol use. Those who are prone to violence and use alcohol are more likely to carry out violent acts.[150] Alcohol impairs judgment, making people much less cautious than they usually are (MacDonald et al. 1996). It also disrupts the way information is processed (Bushman 1993, 1997; Bushman & Cooper 1990).

Pain and discomfort also increase aggression. Even the simple act of placing one's hands in hot water can cause an aggressive response. Hot temperatures have been implicated as a factor in a number of studies. One study completed in the midst of the civil rights movement found that riots were more likely on hotter days than cooler ones (Carlsmith & Anderson 1979). Students were found to be more aggressive and irritable after taking a test in a hot classroom (Anderson et al. 1996, Rule, et al. 1987). Drivers in cars without air conditioning were also found to be more likely to honk their horns (Kenrick & MacFarlane 1986), which is used as a measure of aggression and has shown links to other factors such as generic symbols of aggression or the visibility of other drivers.[151]

Frustration is another major cause of aggression. The Frustration aggression theory states that aggression increases if a person feels that he or she is being blocked from achieving a goal (Aronson et al. 2005). One study found that the closeness to the goal makes a difference. The study examined people waiting in line and concluded that the 2nd person was more aggressive than the 12th one when someone cut in line (Harris 1974). Unexpected frustration may be another factor. In a separate study to demonstrate how unexpected frustration leads to increased aggression, Kulik & Brown (1979) selected a group of students as volunteers to make calls for charity donations. One group was told that the people they would call would be generous and the collection would be very successful. The other group was given no expectations. The group that expected success was more upset when no one was pledging than the group who did not expect success (everyone actually had horrible success). This research suggests that when an expectation does not materialize (successful collections), unexpected frustration arises which increases aggression.

There is some evidence to suggest that the presence of violent objects such as a gun can trigger aggression. In a study done by Leonard Berkowitz and Anthony Le Page (1967), college students were made angry and then left in the presence of a gun or badminton racket. They were then led to believe they were delivering electric shocks to another student, as in the Milgram experiment. Those who had been in the presence of the gun administered more shocks. It is possible that a violence-related stimulus increases the likelihood of aggressive cognitions by activating the semantic network.

A new proposal links military experience to anger and aggression, developing aggressive reactions and investigating these effects on those possessing the traits of a serial killer. Castle and Hensley state, "The military provides the social context where servicemen learn aggression, violence, and murder."[152] Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is also a serious issue in the military, also believed to sometimes lead to aggression in soldiers who are suffering from what they witnessed in battle. They come back to the civilian world and may still be haunted by flashbacks and nightmares, causing severe stress. In addition, it has been claimed that in the rare minority who are claimed to be inclined toward serial killing, violent impulses may be reinforced and refined in war, possibly creating more effective murderers.[citation needed]

Some recent scholarship has questioned traditional psychological conceptualizations of aggression as universally negative.[33] Most traditional psychological definitions of aggression focus on the harm to the recipient of the aggression, implying this is the intent of the aggressor; however this may not always be the case.[153] From this alternate view, although the recipient may or may not be harmed, the perceived intent is to increase the status of the aggressor, not necessarily to harm the recipient.[154] Such scholars contend that traditional definitions of aggression have no validity.[citation needed]

From this view, rather than concepts such as assertiveness, aggression, violence and criminal violence existing as distinct constructs, they exist instead along a continuum with moderate levels of aggression being most adaptive.[33] Such scholars do not consider this a trivial difference, noting that many traditional researchers' aggression measurements may measure outcomes lower down in the continuum, at levels which are adaptive, yet they generalize their findings to non-adaptive levels of aggression, thus losing precision.[155]

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Aggression - Wikipedia

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Last week we discussed the differences between HGH and HCG for weight loss, however we didn't discuss Sermorelin vs HCG for weight loss and how this HGH stimulating peptide is different. Sermorelin is a HGH secretagogue, or a peptide that causes the body to naturally release its own HGH. This way, the HGH that is produced is natural and there are no concerns about the purity of the actual hormone since it is produced by the body. Sermorelin causes a gradual rise in HGH production after being injected for several weeks at a time. Sermorelin directly causes the body to create its own HGH, while the hormone HGH itself is often injected for the purpose of weight loss and anti-aging. Sermorelin and HGH have different effects on the body, and Sermorelin has become a popular anti-aging treatment that also has some weight loss gains. However, between Sermorelin and HCG, HCG is still the better hormone for weight loss for reasons explained below.

HCG is the most widely used and effective hormone for the specific purpose of weight loss. It is clinically proven to assist with weight loss on a very low calorie diet. Most people try Sermorelin therapy for the purpose of anti-aging, and it has a wide range of positive effects on the body. Weight loss is certainly possible with Sermorelin therapy but it is rarely the primary goal of the treatment. The usual primary goal of Sermorelin injections is to replace any reduced HGH levels that are the result of aging or other causes. Sermorelin can result in a moderate amount of weight loss but it often needs to be combined with exercise and a healthy diet, and it can be much more difficult to lose weight with Sermorelin alone compared to HGH.

Unlike the HCG diet, there is no specific Sermorelin diet that will optimize the weight loss potential of the treatment. Sermorelin results in weight loss when administered as a treatment over a long period of time. The weight loss that normally results is usually around 5 to 10 pounds after several months of treatment, usually four to six months. This assumes very little to no exercise. The HCG diet on the other hand is designed to help the body lose as much weight as possible by maximizing the effectiveness of the hormone. The diet avoids specific foods that can cause an interaction with the hormone, and it was developed through clinical research. There is no such protocol for Sermorelin outside of general guidelines for eating healthy and exercising on a regular basis.

As previously mentioned, weight loss is only a side benefit of Sermorelin therapy, and the amount of weight loss will vary dramatically from one person to another. In general, the weight loss that Sermorelin can offer is very limited. It is a good treatment for many people who are HGH deficient, and it is a good way to maintain a healthy weight when combined with a healthy diet and exercise. However, HCG is far better for the purpose of losing a large amount of weight in a short period of time. HCG can realistically cause up to 40 pounds of weight loss in just six weeks when combined with the very low calorie diet protocol. It has been proven time and time again to be one of the best weight loss treatments in the world, and for patients who intend to lose weight there is simply no other hormone or treatment that will work better in the vast majority of cases.

When combined with exercise, Sermorelin is great for maintaining a healthy weight. The loss of HGH that occurs with aging is correlated with an increase in body fat and a decrease in muscle mass. The loss of HGH also slows down the body's fat metabolism, which is why it is easier to put on weight as we start to age and harder to lose it. Sermorelin helps with all of that and more. It helps restore a more youthful metabolism, so that the food you do eat isn't converted into fat as easily. It also helps with improving muscle mass which in turn burns more calories when you are sedentary, and it helps burn abnormal fat that you already have. In general, it's a great option for aging adults to help them maintain their weight.

Sermorelin is also proven to be effective at helping adults restore a more normal sleep cycle. An abnormal sleep cycle and insomnia are both associated with weight gain. People who stay up for longer periods of time are more likely to eat to stay alert or out of boredom, and many sleep disorders and problems are associated with weight gain. Sermorelin has been reported to help adults improve their sleep within just days of starting the treatment, and by getting higher quality sleep and more sleep, it can be easier to maintain a healthy weight. Most adults need a minimum of 7 hours of sleep per night to be adequately rested, and if you are an aging adult with weight to lose as well as sleep problems, you may definitely want to consider starting Sermorelin therapy.

You will only lose a very small amount of weight on Sermorelin therapyunless you exercise regularly. One of the main benefits of taking Sermorelin is the fact that you will recover more quickly from your workouts, and you will build more muscle than you would without the treatment. Just as a young person can exercise while maintaining a high energy level, Sermorelin can help improve your energy levels when you are working out and help your body get more out of your workouts. The result is that your body will respond better to physical activity. To really see significant weight loss results with the therapy you do have to exercise regularly. However, exercise is definitely not a requirement for the HCG diet and as a result it is often more convenient for patients, especially those with a lot of pounds to lose.

A main benefit of the HCG diet is that it never requires exercise for weight loss and it works fast. Anyone who wants to lose weight as quickly as possible should consider starting the HCG diet. Once the diet has been completed, if the patient has a HGH deficiency, it can easily be corrected with Sermorelin therapy and it should. Although HCG is better for weight loss than Sermorelin, Sermorelin is often necessary for many patients who have a small to significant HGH deficiency. It offers a great way for patients to maintain a youthful metabolism, lose a few pounds, put on more muscle and get more out of their workouts, but the HCG diet offers the fastest way to lose weight in the shortest period of time.

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Sermorelin vs HCG for Weight Loss - Nu Image Medical

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[Last updated 6th December, 2017]

Losing weight and keeping it off can be a struggle.

Especially if you have an underactive thyroid. Your metabolism has slowed down and youre almost always feeling tired.

But if you break down the process into small steps, and tick each box as you go, weight loss comes much easier.

This guide covers the 6 fundamental steps required to successfully lose weight with an underactive thyroid.

Closed captions are available.

I wanted to begin with a nutrition recommendation, but correctingyour thyroid medication first priority.

If your medication is not helping to correct TSH and thyroid hormone levels, as well asrelieve symptoms, then weight loss goes from difficult to impossible.

Work with your health care provider to determine what type of medication is better for you, and also to find the optimal dose required. While Levothyroxine is on average more effective, Armour is reportedly much better tolerated.

There is no difference between taking your thyroid hormone meds in the morning vs evening. Choose whatever is easier for you to have it on a fasting stomach (1, 2).

Summary: It is fundamental to work with your doctor to explore what type and dose of thyroid medication is best for you. Until your thyroid hormone levels are corrected, weight loss is much more difficult.

I need to begin with this clarification:

Carbohydrates are not inherently bad for you. That is, they do not make you fat or sick on their own (I wrote in detail about it here). It always comes back to total calories consumed.

That said, carbs in the form of added sugars and highly refined starches are unhealthy and unnecessary. They offer almost zero nutritional benefit (known as empty calories) and make up a large portion of the excess calories we consume.

In fact, the average American adults consumption of added sugar increased by more than 30% in the last 30 years, with children consuming approximately 20% more. Thiswas illustrated below by Obesity.org.

Fortunately those numbers have began to reverse; a trend thatneeds to continue. Nevertheless, cutting back on added sugar is still the most simple and direct way to cut out excess empty calories.

Thisis done by limiting intake of junk foods, flavoured drinks (including juice), alcohol, white bread, most cereals and muesli bars, and a good portion of packaged food in your supermarkets health food aisle. That includes gluten-free junk food its still junk food.

Now its unrealistic (and unfair) to expect yourself to completely avoid added sugar every day of the year. But you need to begin taking actionable steps that help you cut back and form healthier habits.

Start by not having junk foods at home, or at least keep them out of sight in a cupboard you never use.

Summary: Added sugar makes up a large portion of the excess calories an average person consumes each day. Cutting down on your intake is critical if you want to successfully lose weight.

If you want to lose weight with an underactive thyroid, these should be the foundation of almost every meal you make, and plated first when serving.

There are 2 main reasons for this:

The main benefit of protein is that its much more satiating than both fat and carbs. That is, it has a unique ability to reduce appetite and therefore your overall caloric intake too.

Studies show high protein diets may also reduce obsessive thoughts about food by 60% and cut desire for late-night snacks by half (3, 4).

Foods high in protein include meat, seafood, eggs, nuts, legumes (beans) and dairy.

Protein is also the muscle-building nutrient, so a high protein diet complements regular exercise.

The nutrient-density of meals is even more important for those with hypothyroidism and other autoimmune diseases, where nutrient absorption and deficiency are more common.

Emphasis goes to green leafy vegetables, mushrooms and cruciferous vegetables like broccoli, cauliflower and cabbage.

Veggies are also our greatest source of fibre, a nutrient that feeds the healthy bacteria in our gut. Studies show that long-term low fibre intake will completely throw out the balance of your gut bacteria; the effects on the gut health of mice was irreversible (5).

As a general guide, the protein portion of your meal should be the size of your palm, and salad/vegetables the size of your hand. This would leave about 1/4 or less of your plate for carbs (such as rice or potato or pasta).

Summary: Protein foods and vegetables should make up the majority of your plate. They are generally the most filling and/or nutrient-dense foods per calorie.

Selenium and zinc are two nutrients directly involved in thyroid function.

It is critical that your diet contains adequate quantities in order to optimise thyroid hormone production and metabolism.

Selenium is an essential mineral that helps the body to recycle iodine. Thats the reason the thyroid has the highest selenium content (per gram of tissue) of all our organs (6).

Therefore, its thought that low selenium levels contribute to hypothyroidism through alternate mechanisms related to iodine. For this reason its fundamental to eat a diet that contains many selenium-rich foods, such as:

Zinc is an essential mineral required to regulate Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH).

In fact, the metabolism of zinc and thyroid hormones are closely interlinked, which is why a deficiency can lead to alopecia (hair loss) (7).

While zinc deficiency is very uncommon in the developed world, its still recommended to eat a variety of zinc-rich foods (8). This includes:

Iodine is also important for thyroid health, but in reality insufficient iodine levels that can harm the thyroid is extremely rare in developed countries (9).

Youre much better off focusing on selenium and zinc-rich foods, many of which contain iodine anyways.

Summary: Consuming a diet naturally rich in selenium and zinc is critical for maintaining a healthy thyroid and metabolism.

You cant out-exercise a bad diet.

This is true, especially when your metabolism is slower than normal. Thats why this article places so much emphasis on dietary changes.

However, if you want to kick-start your weight loss then regular exercise is the best way to do it.

Weight loss ultimately comes down to expendingmore energy (calories) than you consume. Although its much morecomplex than eat less, move more (there are many biological factors to consider),being active helps to burn additional calories. It also improves aspects of health that even perfect nutrition cant provide, such as strength and mobility.

You dont have to put yourself through miserable high-intensity workouts either. Research shows that low-intensity exercise that lasts longer such as regular long walks are just as effective for weight loss, especially if you are just starting out (10).

A general guideline is to walk for at least 60 minutes or 10,000 steps on most days.

Regularly lifting weights (or bodyweight exercises) is also highly beneficial, especially if mobility is an issue for you. In fact, its equally as important as cardio and we should be doing both where possible.

Known as resistance exercise, it still helps burns additional calories, but with the added benefit of building lean muscle. The more muscle you have, the faster your metabolism and the less likely you are to fall ill (11).

There are numerousresistance exercise programs on Youtube for beginners, and you can do it all at home if you invest in a pair of dumbbells or even one kettle bell.

Summary: Regular exercise helps to kick-start weight loss and speed up the entire process. It also improves your strength, mobility and metabolic health. If mobility is a problem for you, lifting weights or bodyweight exercises are a fantastic alternative.

This step is only for those with Hashimotos or another autoimmune disease, and only recommended if you already consistently follow steps 1 to 5 but are still very overweight.

The Autoimmune Protocol (AIP) is an elimination diet that temporarily cuts out numerous food groups including dairy, grains, nuts and seeds, legumes, nightshade vegetables and more. It is said to have emerged from the Paleo movement (and sometimes referred to as Autoimmune Paleo), but to describe it as Paleo seems too basic.

The AIP goes by the premise that certain food chemicals and compounds cause low-grade inflammation in the gut of individuals with an autoimmune disease (in this case Hashimotos disease). Low-grade inflammation appears to be a driving factor behind many modern health conditions, including autoimmune diseases, metabolic disorder and obesity too (12).

By removing the everyday trigger foods in your diet, inflammation subsides giving your body the opportunity to recover and reset; known medically as remission. This is what occurs inceliac disease patients when they remove gluten from the diet, or most IBS patients followinga low FODMAP diet.

Ill admit I was highly sceptical of this theory at first; researchers in the area of rheumatology/immunology rarely do randomised trials on elimination diets (the only way to prove cause and effect). That means we still cannot reliably say what foods influence autoimmune diseases and their symptoms (nor to what extent).

Does it help because you cut out specific trigger food components? Or because such restriction inadvertently forces you to eat healthier consistently? Or is it a combination of both? Its hard to say, but we cannot ignore the abundance of non-trial and anecdotal evidence (personal testimonial) that indicate AIP helps with a variety of symptoms.

Although only temporary, elimination diets like AIP are highly restrictive and can get complicated if you take medications for other medical conditions or are at risk of nutrient deficiencies. Its fundamental you speak with your doctor before beginning.

Summary: Trialling the Autoimmune Protocol is an option if you have Hashimotos disease and have found steps 1 to 5 are no help. It may help with weight loss given its (theoretical) influence on inflammation and its highly restrictive nature.

Here are some extra pointers to help you lose weight with an underactive thyroid:

Read the rest here:
How To Lose Weight With An Underactive Thyroid: Your 6-Step Guide

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Looking to lose belly fat fast that you put on over time from a little bit of that good living? Its alright, so are plenty of other men and women. Thanks to a variety of lifestyle factors, a chubby belly is not an uncommon occurrence. Sitting at desks all day, long TV marathons with an abundance of snacks, driving to places which are in walking distance, and poor meal choices will all contribute to a little more junk in the trunk than you might want.

Belly fat creeps up on you. Its not like you wake up one morning 10 pounds heavier and sporting a beer gut, its put on in lumps throughout the year. A birthday here, a celebration there.Intersperse them with a few takeaways and beers and soon enough the mirror is showing you a different picture to the one you want.

Thankfully, there are things you can do to lose belly fat (and keep it gone). Its not as tricky as you think, either. Healthy eating isnt bland, exercise doesnt have to be boring, and losing weight isnt about ruining your social life. Losing belly fat can be an enjoyable experience thats not too hard once you use a few helpful techniques.

However, lets start with what you shouldnt do.

1. Do 100 sit-ups everyday hoping youll get a six pack

Sit-ups can be a useful and effective exercise for strengthening the abs. However, doing them every day is just going to leave you sore and frustrated with your lack of results. Ab training is a good tool to have under your belt, but the first step to seeing your abs is to lose the fat covering them.

2. Commit to any fad diets

90% of the time that new and exciting diet your friend has been raving about only works short-term. Fad diets work on absolutes such as cutting out a certain macronutrient (carbs, fat or protein) or a specific type of food. Every diet that works for losing weight works on one process: calorie balance. The calories you take in versus the calories you burn are the ultimate driving factor behind weight loss and weight gain. There are diets which make this process easier, but nothing bypasses it. Most fad diets work dont teach sustainable, long-term habits which means people end up wasting their time and ending back at square one. Not good.

3. Cut out all junk or unhealthy foods

In a similar fashion to fad diets, cutting out certain foods that you enjoy can lead to cravings and binge eating. For instance, if you really love pizza, cutting it out is only going to make you want it more and make you feel bad or guilty when you eat it. The trick is to learn how to incorporate it into your diet to reduce cravings and make the diet more enjoyable.

4. Weigh yourself each morning

Weight and fat are too very different things. Weight refers to everything on and in your body: muscle, bone, liquid, fat, etc. Therefore, losing or gaining weight doesnt mean youve lost or gained fat, it just means somethings changed in your body. Its not about what happens day to day, its about what happens on a consistent basis. To get a good view of your weight, stepping on the scales twice per week should be more than enough. Once per week also works. If your weight is gradually decreasing on average, then you can be sure what youre doing is right. Theres no point in beating yourself up because you woke up a little heavier one day as most likely its just a little bit more water being retained.

Also, make sure to weigh yourself at the same time. Youll most likely gain weight over the course of the day because of all the food youre eating. Try to weigh yourself each morning after a trip to the toilet to get the most accurate and consistent reading.

5. Miss out on seeing your friends and family because it doesnt work with your exercise routine or diet

As weve already said, for a diet to be truly effective, it needs to work long term. Therefore, your diet and lifestyle also need to keep you happy. If youre losing friends or skipping occasions in order to change how you look, then youre either not going to feel as good at the end of your journey or youre going to cut yourself short. Either way, each ends up with stress and suboptimal results. Youre not going to stay dedicated and motivated if your social life is dwindling. Remember, your diet needs to work for you as much as youre working for it.

So, now you know exactly what not to do, itd be pretty helpful to find out what you should do to lose belly fat, right?

1. Find Exercise That You Enjoy

One of the biggest reasons why people believe they cant lose weight is because they dont enjoy exercise. The thing is, as soon as you attach that label to yourself, it becomes harder and harder to remove it. The secret is finding exercise that you enjoy. When youre first starting to try and lose weight, dont worry about whats best, just focus on what works for you. Weightlifting, cycling, running, football, athletics, rowing, swimming, powerlifting the list is endless and so are your choices. The first step to losing stubborn body fat is getting into the routine of exercise and making it part of your lifestyle. Once its a regular and not unusual occurrence, then you can focus on whats optimal.

2. Start Resistance Training

Once youve got into a regular routine involving frequent physical activity, the next step is incorporating some form of resistance training. Compound movements involving multiple joints will not only work the most muscles, but burn the most calories. Focus on the six big lifts: the squat, the deadlift, the pull-up, rows, the overhead press, and the bench press. All together these hit each and every muscle in your body.

Forget body-part splits of legs, shoulders, chest, arms, and back, too. Not only do these take up a lot of time, theyre also sub optimal for beginner and intermediate lifters. Three-days a week is the minimum amount of resistance training sessions with four being preferred. If you follow a three-day split, follow a full body routine each time. If youre going for four, then follow a lower body/upper body split. This will spike MPS (muscle-protein synthesis: the process by which your body builds more muscle) more times in each area, leading to more muscle growth.

Why build more muscle? Unlike fat, muscle is metabolically active, meaning that it burns calories when its on your body. This means youll burn more calories at rest leading to further fat gain. Not to mention, when trying to lose belly fat you still want to hold onto your muscle so that you look more toned and defined as you lose fat opposed to just smaller and weaker. Fat loss is the goal, not just weight loss.

3. Increase Your Protein Intake

There are a lot of benefits to increasing your protein intake when trying to lose weight. First of all, following on from resistance training, protein helps to spare muscle mass when trying to lose fat. The more muscle you have, the better youll look and the more fat youll lose.

Secondly, protein is extremely satiating, the most so out of the three macronutrients. This means that youre less likely to overeat and more likely to feel full on a lower calorie diet, making eating for weight loss easier.

Lastly, out of the three macronutrients, protein is the least likely to be converted into fat. The process of converting protein into fat is extremely inefficient.

4. Use the 80/20 Rule

Instead of trying to eliminate things from your diet completely, the 80/20 rule allows for some leeway whilst still keeping you on track for your goal. When first embarking on a weight loss diet, many people will work on extremes and absolute. How many people do you know who cut out all carbs? Or remove fats? Or follow a smoothie diet? Or only eat past a certain time? None of these allow for any flexibility and therefore, are hard to keep up long-term.

The 80/20 simply means eating whole, natural, healthy foods 80% of the time and then saving 20% of the time for those sweet treats or more-unhealthy options. The ratio is just a guideline so dont think that you have to stick to it rigidly. The predominant driving factor is to eat fruit, vegetables, nuts, seeds, meat, fish, and whole grains most of the time whilst allowing yourself a few cravings every now and again. This limits the chance of binging, helps improve adherence and also makes losing fat more enjoyable. Also, it shows you how no one food is bad, its just that the devil is in the dose.

5. Try Counting Calories (And Dont Cut Them Too Low)

Counting calories can seem like a trivial task, but actually its a great way to learn more about the foods you eat. Chances are that you dont have a good idea about the amount of calories, fat, protein, carbs, and salt your food contains. Tracking helps you become informed and also guess more accurately when you dont have access to the nutritional content. This can make sticking to your diet when youre out and about much easier as well as helping with your body composition goals in the future. You dont need to track all the time, just two to three days a week should do it. Yet, tracking every day for set amount of time, such as a month, can also be useful.

You also dont want to cut your calories too low or youll risk losing some of that precious muscle. Itll also make the diet harder to stick to. Furthermore, when your metabolism eventually adapts, youll have to eat even less to drop more weight. Just stick to the MED (minimum effective dose) which is about 300 calories less than your daily caloric needs. Track your weight over a period of two weeks. If the trend is erring on the side of weight loss, then you know youre doing the right thing. If youre gaining or maintaining your weight, then youll need to lower your calories further.

6. Enjoy the Process, Not Just the Result

Last, but by no means least, you need to enjoy the process as much as you enjoy the eventual results. Time is precious and should not be wasted on being upset, stressed, and frustrated. The process may not always be easy, but it shouldnt have you tearing your hair out. If you are feeling particularly down in the dumps about your exercise or diet, then somethings got to change.

These tips for how to lose belly fat will get you off to the best start possible, just remember it takes a bit of hard work and patience to see results.

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How to Lose Belly Fat Fast - lose weight fast

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When you have a significant amount of weight to drop or an imminent deadline (that class reunion really snuck up, huh?), trying to shed unwanted pounds quickly is pretty tempting. Here's what you need to know in order to do effectively and safely!

If you have more to lose, youll lose moreinitially.Its actually more useful to think of the weight you want to lose in terms of a percentage of your current weight, rather than a number of pounds. For most men, a weight loss goal of 10 to 15 percent is a reasonable place to start, says Nisha Basu, M.D., a primary care physician at Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and instructor at Harvard Medical School. So for a man who weighs 225, that would be 22 to 34 pounds. For one who weighs 350, hes looking at 35 to 53 poundsat least as a starting point. The bigger guy may also, therefore, drop more pounds in his first few weigh-ins. Pace of weight loss is highly variable, Basu says. In general, though, for those with more weight to lose, initial weight loss can happen more rapidly.

That first weigh-in may be dramatic. Its not uncommon to see that scale needle make a satisfying downtick within the first week or two of changing your habits. Generally the first week, most people can lose several pounds, which is mainly water weight, says Basu. Why? When you put your body at a calorie deficit (i.e., eat fewer calories than you burn), your body immediately goes to its ready-energy stores of glycogen (basically, a form of sugar) to make up the difference. In the process, water is released. But once the glycogen is depleted and the body figures out it needs another way to find fuel, thats when the actual weight loss begins.

Not all weight loss is equal. Aside from that tricky glycogen-fueled water weight, the body can burn both fat (yay!) and muscle (not-so-yay) as fuel. Not only that, burning fat for fuel isnt nearly as easy at a cellular level as burning sugar... or protein (really not-so-yay). Weight training and eating enough protein is key to not losing too much muscle mass, Basu says. Increasing your muscle mass can help to sustain the weight loss, too. Which is why strength training may actually be more important than cardio in supporting a weight loss plan.

Theres a legit reason that pacing is key. You probably keep hearing about that whole 1-to-2 pound-per-week rule of thumb and think, Psh, I can do better than that! but hear usand the Harvard doctorout. Almost every time a patient loses a large amount of weight in a short time, say 10 pounds in a week, the patient will gain it all back and more, Basu says. Further, several studies have shown that this yo-yo dieting is harmful to a persons long-term health. So basically, you may drop the lbs for the reunion, but you may be in a pickle to drop them again (and more) for the next one five years from now.

Super-intense plans arent so super. OK, but what if you really have to lose a lot of weight? See your doctor, and resist the urge to try what you may have seen on TV! These extremely restrictive diets and very high intensity workout plans do not teach healthy eating behaviors or how to integrate exercise and activity into a persons busy life, says Basu. If you dont learn how to make actual lifestyle changes, youll fall back into your old habits andyou know the rest. In addition, the metabolism slows drastically in response to this type of weight loss, leading to many people regaining the weight even several years down the road, she says. Which basically means an even harder path to weight loss in the future.

Everyone plateausand can persevere. So, unfortunately, youre stuck losing weight at a slowish pace after all. An even more annoying reality check: Even that pace will inevitably stall out. When a plateau happens, it could be that youve let some old habits crop back up. Or you may simply need to make changes to what youve been doing, even though that exact plan was working so well mere weeks ago. As a person begins to weigh less, he needs fewer calories to support the new lower body weight, Basu says. But by simply tweaking portion size (smaller) or exercise (more), youll be back to losing in no time.

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Semorelin is a safe and low cost alternative to hGh therapy.

Since early in 1990 Human Growth Hormone Replacement Therapy has been a popular Anti-Aging treatment, but the use of hGH has a high side effect profile.

Sermorelin acetate has become a popular alternative as it enables you to obtain the benefits of hGH Therapy, without the associated risks.

The purpose of Sermorelin Acetate Therapy is to cause the pituitary gland to increase growth hormone production in humans. When used in adults itcanreverse the effects of aging. Sermorelin is a compound prescription medication that is self injected nightly by the patient. It is a long-term protocol. It stimulates the pituitary gland to naturally produce increased amounts of human growth hormone. Sermorelin Acetate is a truncated analog of a growth hormone releasing factor (GRF 1-44) that is naturally produced by the brain to stimulate pituitary production of human growth hormone. The increased volume of human growth hormone (hGH) produced by the pituitary gland causes an increase in the production of Insulin-Like Growth Factor-1 (IGF-1) by the liver and results in the benefits of treatment provided to the adult patient.

Sermorelin is a peptide which contains the first 29 amino acids that makes which secretes the growth hormonereleasing factor 129 NH2-acetate otherwise know as a secrtagogue. Semorelin helps promte the healthy function of the pituitary gland by providing the message to release the bodys natural growth hormone. This message is greatly reduced during the aging process.

Sermorelin is often also referred to as an hGH stimulator.

Sermorelinhas not been linkedwith the same long list of side-effects as hGH therapies. The administration of sermorelin results in a release of growth hormone more in line with our bodys natural process. Sermorelin supports pituitary function and promotes natural production of hGH. For this reason, increased hGH production is noted for a period even after sermorelin therapy has stopped.

We suggest the daily use of Sermorelin for 6 months to obtain optimal levels then maintain a maintence dose to continue the benefits.

Benefits of Sermorelin

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Sermorelin - Alpine Wellness Clinic

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Dr. Morganstern has been a leader and innovator in the treatment of Peyronies Disease, erectile dysfunction, and hidden or buried penises. His treatments reduce the curve of the penis for Peyronies, restore blood flow to the penis and reverse erectile dysfunction, and enlarge penises permanently. He has developed breakthrough treatments for male sexual dysfunction and mens anti-aging regimens for the past 3 decades. Below are some of his latest therapies used at his mens health center in Atlanta, GA.

Nearly all men are impacted by erectile dysfunction (ED) sometime in their lives. An estimated 30 million men are affected by ED, yet few seek treatment for it. There are a multitude of reasons men experience erectile dysfunction. Our office receives calls daily from men who either cannot achieve an erection or cannot sustain an erection.Many causes relate to inadequate blood flow to the penis, and, as a result, the penis is unable to engorge and produce an erection. ED is often are a symptom of a more significant physical issue.

Erectile Dysfunction results from an existing or developing physical condition. Healthy blood flow is a critical component of a properly functioning penis which is able to achieve and sustain an erection.

Some common causes of ED include atherosclerosis (resulting in narrowing of arteries or blockage), and vascular disorders such as heart disease, high cholesterol, and high blood pressure. Other causes are neurological issues such as stroke or Multiple Sclerosis and chronic illnesses such as diabetes or kidney disease. Stress and performance anxiety can often play a part in dysfunction issues, as well.

Dr. Morganstern has seen patients with ED for over 30 years. He has found treatment methods that work to eliminate ED. Many of his patients ask if there is an ED cure. The answer is ED can be successfully treated and reversed. Dr. Morganstern utilizes proprietary therapies that treat the root of the problem causing the erectile dysfunction. His therapies are highly effective in reversing the condition and restoring proper blood flow through the body and to the penis for sexual function.

Do you need hormone pellets, injectable therapy, or Sermorelin to stimulate an increase in Human Growth Hormone (HGH)? Dr. Morganstern will match you with the therapy that is the most effective and most compatible with your body.[/title]

Dr. Steven Morganstern is the doctor who trains other doctors. Dr. Morganstern has been a leader in the latest treatments for male sexual dysfunction and mens anti-aging regimens for 34 years. Below are some of his latest therapies used at his mens health center in Atlanta, GA. Dr Morganstern is a renowned surgeon and has performed penis enlargement surgery for over three decades. Male patients come to his practice from all across the country.

Do you need hormone pellets, injectable therapy, or Sermorelin to stimulate an increase in Human Growth Hormone (HGH)? Dr. Morganstern will match you with the therapy that is the most effective and most compatible with your body.

Request information or an appointment in our Atlanta office

Or call (404)352-8220 for an appointment today.

Dr. Morganstern is a renowned urologist and surgeon. He has performed penis enlargement surgery for over three decades. The post surgery penis is both thicker and longer. It looks completely natural, just larger. Many male patients are not satisfied with the length or thickness of their penis and feel inadequate. Other men have hidden or buried penises or micro-penises, which impedes sexual intercourse. Male patients come to the Atlanta urology practice from across the country.

Sermorelin is an alternative treatment to increase HGH naturally by stimulating the release of Growth Hormone Releasing Hormone, or GHRH from the hypothalamus gland. Sermorelin allows you to increase HGH both safely and effectively.

Dr. Morganstern offers several anti-aging treatments. During your visit at his Atlanta office, he will discuss the treatment options that are most effective and compatible with your health and body.

BioTE Pellet Therapy for Low Testosterone

In the mid-1990s Dr. Morganstern was one of the physician pioneers in the treatment of premature ejaculation with the use of SSRIs (anti-depressants). He has a long history of being on the leading edge of a variety of new urology therapies, many of them associated with sexual dysfunction. Dr. Morganstern is excited about a new topical medication for the treatment of PE called Promescent, from Absorption Pharmaceuticals. Promescent is effective, easy-to-use, inexpensive and has negligible risk of significant side effects. It comes in a metered dose spray bottle so that you can adjust to the dose that works best for you. Apply 10 minutes before sexual activity. The unique formula absorbs into the skin of the penis so that you get greatly improved ejaculatory control, yet maintain good sensory feeling and there will be minimal transference to your partner.

Were recommending Promescent as first-line therapy for many PE patients but we recommend that you visit our office to understand your complete sexual health. Call: 404 352-8220 for an appointment today.

An exploratory analysis revealed that one in four men seeking first medical help for new-onset erectile dysfunction (ED) was no older than age 40 years. Of 439 consecutive patients, new-onset ED as the primary disorder was found in 114 men (26%) aged 40 and younger, according to The Journal of Sexual Medicine study (2013;10:1833-1841). ED was severe in nearly half of the young men (48.8%), comparable with the rate of 40% for older patients.

Trimix U-gel is a gel that is is inserted into the male urethra a few minutes prior to intercourse. The use of trimix has been around for decades as an injectable. Recent evidence suggests that an urethral gel does work. This gives the patients the ability to get an erection similar to the injectable version without the use of a needle!

As with the injection, the strength of the TriMix U-gel vary greatly and can be tailored to each individual patient, giving them the confidence for satisfactory erection within minutes.

TRiMix U-gel is a new treatment for erectile dysfunction exclusively at Morganstern Urology in Atlanta,GA.

Schedule a confidential phone or office consultation to discuss sexual dysfunction or male anti-aging treatments

Or call (404)352-8220 for an appointment today.

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Atlanta Erectile Dysfunction Clinic: Causes Treatments

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