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A visit to the Brain Exercise and Training Program at the University of Pittsburgh.

Jennie Dorriss four music students each stood, mallets in hand, behind a marimba, which looks a little like a xylophone. They were getting one last look at the original melody they wrote before Dorris erased it from the dry erase board and they had to play it from memory.

Take a look at it. Use the contours, look at your instrument, Dorris told her students. Lets see how it goes."

The melody the students wrote has eight notes in it. According to Dorris, its commonly believed that humans can recall about seven items using short-term memory.

So we use music to test that idea, like can we get to seven? Dorris said, turning to the class. You guys did so good at seven on Monday, now youve got to go to eight. And they write harder melodies than I write.

Dorris students were there less to learn the marimba and more to challenge their brains.

Three days a week, the students all senior citizens gather in Oakland to make music, exercise, create art and play computer games. Its part of the University of Pittsburghs Brain Exercise and Training Program, or BRiTE.

Pitt psychiatry professor James Becker is co-director of the program, and said its the first of its kind in the nation.

In 1998, we met a group of individuals in Barcelona who have been really inspirational in Europe in terms of developing these kinds of programs, emphasizing non pharmacological approaches to working with folks who are older and who have some degree of memory problems, Becker same.

Becker said research has shown that activities such as music, art, movement and computer games are correlated with the preservation of memory and cognitive function.

We're not proposing that the activities that people will participate in are going to result in big improvements, he said. What we are saying is that people like them who have engaged in these activities do seem to have different trajectories, different brain health than folks who don't.

After the marimba lesson, Sally Newman, 87, made her way to the computer lab, where she worked with a program called Smart Brain. It asked her to put individual tasks in order to achieve a larger goal: buying a pair of shoes.

Im going to go to a shoe store if I want to buy a pair of shoes, Newman said. And then look for the shoes you like is the second item.

Newman hasnt been diagnosed with a memory problem, but she said she still feels like shes benefiting from the BRiTE program.

Let's put it this way, my husband thinks I'm a little sharper in analysis, she said. Maybe I am, maybe Im not. But I like the exercise.

Newman said playing the marimba and doing yoga also help with the arthritis and frozen shoulders that limit her mobility.

Program Director Bonnie Hoolahan said people dont need to have a particular diagnosis to participate.

Anyone who thinks that they're kind of getting a little forgetful, Hoolahan said. People who are afraid, maybe they have (Alzheimers or dementia) in their family history and they're worried about that they're starting to see them slip a little bit.

Though, 66-year-old Christine Brown does have a diagnosis: early onset Alzheimers disease.

The computers were absolutely wonderful, Brown said. You make mistakes, but it keeps you focused.

Despite the fact that it was her first day at BRiTE, Brown was talkative during the artistic portion of the morning.

She and the other participants drawing and collaging self-portraits talked about everything from pizza to the weather to the care theyre receiving for their memory problems.

She doesnt drive, so she had to wait to join the BRiTE program until it offered transportation.

Im home alone every other day, Brown said.

Hoolahan said that social aspect likely has benefits as well, because memory loss and cognitive degeneration can feel really isolating.

Weve got a great group of people and they talk and they make friend and, you know, they've all kind of got a similar issue going on that they can commiserate about and talk about and grow from it and learn from each other as well, she said.

Professor James Becker said, in the future, they hope to use the BRiTE program as a way to conduct research on the effects these activities have on memory loss and cognitive function.

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Eating chocolate can lead to weight loss. Ill give you a second to process that.

Ready? Okay, but before you take that on as your new life motto, learn why this is a controversial suggestion.

Im just as ready and desperate to embrace the fat-busting ways of chocolate as you are, but lets not just indulge in wishful thinking unless theres scientific proof to back it up. Luckily, weight loss and chocolate have quite the track record.

In a 2005 study conducted at the University of LAquila in Italy, researchers found that dark chocolate decreases blood pressure and improves insulin sensitivity in healthy persons.

Neuroscientist and author of Eat Chocolate, Lose WeightWill Clower claims that eating chocolate 20 minutes before and five minutes after lunch and dinner can help cut appetite by up to 50 percent. This effect is a result of the brain releasing hormones that fool the body into thinking its full.

In a 2009 study, scientists found that dark chocolate was able to reduce the metabolic effects of stress. High stress levels are associated with weight gain. Meanwhile, University of Copenhagen researchers found that dark chocolate lessens cravings for sweet, salty, and fatty foods, obvious culprits on anyones trek to a slimmer figure.

The research substantiates the claim that eating chocolate may help you to lose weight. And, eating chocolate before a meal, appears to be the best time, as chocolate will give your body the sensation of being full (better before than after a meal) and will weaken cravings for poor food choices (better before than after the fact).

But there are limitations. Most of these studies hinge on the premise that the chocolate is a simple, dark variety no dairy in the ingredients list and that it is consumed moderately. Too much of anything, especially of a food straddling the boundaries of that complex space called guilty conscience, can go sour.

Kimberly Snyder,nutritionist and New York Times best-selling author, also recommends eating chocolate, but not too much. We do not need chocolate in our diet at all for nutritive value, so you do not want to consume chocolate every day it is a treat!

Rather than treating chocolate as the only variable in your weight loss formula, make it part of a healthy, plant-based dietary lifestyle. Instead of fearing it, enjoy it on occasion, but not too much to the point it becomes its own food group.

In sticking to the dark chocolate theme, Snyder recommends organic and dairy-free chocolate with at least a 72% cacao content, of which there are many on the market.

Dark chocolate contains resveratrol, antioxidants, and is a good source of magnesium, she notes. But these nutritional perks are shrouded when excess sugar and dairy are added to the equation.

Another option is raw chocolate. The difference between commercial dark chocolate and raw chocolate is that the cacao beans for raw chocolate are never heated above 108 degrees Fahrenheit (42 degrees Celsius), thus maintaining the nutritional profile of the cacao. Many raw chocolate brands usually stick to the unrefined (or healthy) theme by omitting refined sugar, dairy, and low-quality oils in the blend. However, just as she warns against dark chocolate, raw chocolate shouldnt be consumed in excess and daily. For a homemade version of raw chocolate, try Snyders Raw Cacao Truffles.

While afew pieces of dark (or raw) chocolate before a meal may help you lose weight, dont abuse the science by overindulging or by, as Snyder recommends not to do, consuming it daily.

Related on Organic Authority You Can Lose Weight on a High-Carb, Low-Fat DietWant to Lose Weight? Pay Attention!Working Out and Getting Fatter? How to Eat to Lose Weight

Aylin is founder of GlowKitchen, a food blog with an emphasis on vegan and gluten-free fare. Aylin has been living in Istanbul, where she is founder and CEO of a cold-pressed juice and healthy foods company JS (www.jusistanbul.com).

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Jessie James Decker loves lifting heavy weights , and swears by protein to keep her full and energized throughout the day. But the country music singer and mom of twoVivienne, 3, and Eric Thomas, 19 monthsdidn't always make time for fitness or think about what she was eating.

"I relied on being young and my genetics and I just kind of stayed thin," Decker tells SELF. But after having kids, she decided it was time to adopt a healthy lifestyle , by consciously eating a healthier diet and working out regularly. "My body looks completely different than it did before kids," she says. In fact, Decker says she feels healthier and more content with her body than ever before.

"I feel like I have more energy now and I feel more proud of myself because I had two kids and know I really accomplished something." And, she says, she worked really hard to get to the happy, healthy place she is now. "Every woman has those days where she nit-picks herself, but I feel like there are not as many as there used to be."

SELF talked with Decker, who is the new brand ambassador of South Beach Diet , and got the scoop on the changes she's made since becoming a mom, what she's doing to stay healthy and happy, and why she wasn't in a rush to lose any weight after delivering her son.

"I decided to make a change and focus on [eating more] veggies and just eating really clean , and paying attention to nutrition," she says.

She decided to partner with South Beach, which offers healthy prepackaged and portioned meals and snacks, to make healthy eating a little easier. "Im running around with my kids, and there were times I used to forget to feed myself and would it be a problem because I would get exhausted and just crash," she says. She's now more conscious of portion sizes when she's making her own food or eating out.

On a typical day, Decker likes to eat a diet high in protein. Breakfast varies depending on what she's doing that day. "If Im in a hurry, I will have the South Beach Ricotta Muffins," she says. "Some mornings Ill just have turkey bacon and scrambled eggs." Either way, she focuses on protein to keep her energized.

Her favorite lunch: Texas chili. "For dinner, I'll grill chicken with asparagus and call it a day." As for snacks? "I love to do almond butter and celery with the kids. If I'm on the run, I'll have a South Beach Toffee Nut Bar."

When she decided she was ready to start a fitness routine , she "was open to trying everything," Decker says. "I work out now a couple times a week, and thats changed everything." It took her a while to find what she really liked and what worked for her body, but she says she loves doing weighted circuit training.

"I feel best when I do really quick circuit workouts . I love changing it up, keeping it fast-paced, and lifting heavy weights," Decker says. After a workout, she'll have a protein shake .

"I hate those unrealistic goals that people place on women. Its just not right," Decker says. "It took us nine months to have our babies and put on this weight. I gained 55 pounds with my daughter, so I get it, its tough. But you can't just pop out a baby and expect to be the size you were before, it just doesn't work like that. I hate that people make women feel thats what they have to do," she says. "You can get to all that stuff later when its right for you ."

Decker says she wasn't ready to even think about losing weight until eight or nine months after her son was born. "I decided not to focus on losing weight until I was done breastfeeding ," she says. "I just paid attention to my body. Im really in tune with my body and what it needs." While some women lose weight breastfeeding, others, like Decker, hold onto (or gain) weight. But she didn't sweat itand just considered it what her body needed to do to feed her babies.

Now, she's focusing on what makes her healthy and happyon her own timeline. "I feel so much more confident now that I changed my lifestyle," Decker says. "I want women to know that they can do that, too."

Watch: A 6-Move No-Equipment Workout You Can Do at Home

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Here are 3 big, fat lies about losing weight that are responsible for unsuccessful weight loss.

Even famous cable TV doctor, Dr. Nowzardan, who treats the people on TLCs My 600 Pound Life, believes carbs make people fat. He asserts his patients must stop eating carbs. I dont think Dr. Now really wants his patients to stop eating carbs, but rather to cut out the heavily processed, refined carbs.

Carbohydrates shouldnt be removed from your diet. If you were to stop eating carbs, youd see a big, gratifying weight loss in a very short period. Weight loss isnt necessarily fat loss. Losing weight from cutting carbs is mostly water loss because it forces the body to use glycogen stored in the muscles and liver for fuel.

It is not sustainable. Carbs are an essential nutrient. If you starve your body of its favorite source of energy it is forced to covert protein to energy. It can do that, but not well and not without side effects. Side effects include constipation, headaches, nausea and bad breath, and in extreme cases, kidney disease.

Carbs should make up 45 65% of your total daily calories, but the carbs should come mainly from fruit, vegetables, legumes, nuts, seeds, and whole grains. For the most part try to limit your total carb intake of refined carbs such as foods with added sugars and white flour to about 10% of your total daily carbs.

Gluten-free must be a great way to lose weight because everybody is doing it, right? Wrong, going gluten-free offers no weight loss or health benefits to most of the human population because most humans dont have Celiac disease or are even gluten sensitive.Celiac disease is an auto-immune disorder which causes antibodies to react to gluten as though it were a toxic substance, which to people with Celiac, it is.

Gluten is a substance in wheat and many other types of grain including barley and rye. People with Celiac disease must avoid it because its harmful to their digestive system. For the rest of us, its harmless and it has no adverse effect on our weight unless its part of a diet too high in calories in general.

People with this disease must eat gluten-free to maintain a healthy diet, but somehow the science got perverted by claims that, I finally lost weight when I went gluten-free, or Go gluten-free to get rid of that belly fat. The claims, and therefore, a gluten-free diet are not supported by science.

Major manufacturers of food jumped on the gluten-free wagon. Its a great marketing tool in a time when people are trying to reduce their consumption of processed carbs, putting gluten-free on the front of the package makes their products appear healthier than they really are.

If your doctor hasnt diagnosed you with Celiac disease, enjoy grains with gluten. You can lose weight and it wont make your belly any fatter than any other foods.

The body needs large amounts of 3 macronutrients daily for good health. They are protein, carbohydrates, and fat. You read that right fat is a macronutrient and necessary for good health even though in the 90s it was identified as your bodys biggest enemy.

Fat got its bad reputation because it was a misunderstood nutrient. First, it had more calories 9 gram for gram, unlike protein and carbs with only 4 calories per gram. Therefore, cutting out fat was an expeditious way to reduce calories thus creating a deficit necessary to lose weight. It was also linked with heart disease.

Just like gluten-free, food manufacturers catered to the publics fat phobia by making fat-free versions of all our favorite foods. Many had more calories than the original versions with fat because lots of sugar was added to make them palatable after removing the fat. There was absolutely nothing healthier about the fat-free versions.

Fat is good for you, just not too much, but then too much of anything isnt good for you. There are 3 kids of fat in order of least to healthiest they are, saturated fat, unsaturated fat, and monounsaturated fat. Healthy diets get 30% of total calories from fat, preferably the monounsaturated fats found in foods such as olive oil, avocados, and nuts. Ideally saturated fat, the fat found in animal sources and is solid at room temperature, should be limited to about 10% of total fat calories.

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April 13, 2017 by George Wigmore Credit: Ivan Mateev/Shutterstock.com

It is unclear whether mindful eating can help with weight loss, according to a new City, University of London review.

The paper, which is published in the journal Clinical Psychology Review, found although mindfulness-based weight management programs have had some success, it is not always clear that the mindfulness components were responsible.

According to the review, research in this area is further complicated by the fact that the term 'mindfulness' is used to refer to a range of different practices. Additionally, there is still little understanding of the mechanisms by which mindfulness might exert its effects, and as a result further research is needed.

Levels of overweight and obesity have increased dramatically over the last three decades, and globally 1 in 3 adults are now overweight or obese, with more than 3 million deaths attributed to the condition every year.

As well as being associated with increased mortality, being overweight or obese is linked to a wide range of chronic health conditions such as type 2 diabetes, coronary heart disease and cancer. In addition, overweight and obesity are estimated to have a global cost of $2.0 trillion a year, which is equivalent to the cost of armed war, violence, and terrorism.

However, mindful eating is increasingly being promoted as a solution to being overweight, with the practice claiming that it will help us eat less, transform our relationship with food and end our battle with weight once and for all. Such techniques are currently being employed by a number of healthcare organisations, as well as being promoted as a strategy for weight management and eating regulation amongst the general public.

The term 'mindfulness' can be used to refer to a range of different practices and can be defined as 'awareness that emerges through paying attention on purpose, in the present moment, and nonjudgmentally to the unfolding of experience moment by moment'. This definition includes two key ideas; that of paying attention to present moment experience, and also of taking a non-judgmental attitude towards this experience.

When it comes to mindful eating, such approaches can include attending to the sensory properties of food, and also decentering, which involves viewing ones thoughts and feelings as temporary events that are separate from oneself.

To investigate the evidence-base for mindful eating, a literature search was undertaken which aimed to identify all studies that examined the independent effects of mindfulness (or a mindfulness-related strategy) on either weight loss, or a behavioural outcome closely associated with weight management, namely quantity or type of food consumed.

The review found that there is little understanding of how mindfulness might work with respect to eating and weight management. However, the study identified that the two areas that show the most promise are present moment awareness of the sensory properties of food, and decentering. However, there is still relatively little research examining these techniques, and no rigorously conducted studies have examined their effects on weight loss or weight maintenance. As a result, whether such techniques can actually help with weight management remains to be seen.

Dr Katy Tapper, a Senior Lecturer from the Department of Psychology at City, University of London said:

"We simply can't say with confidence that mindful eating can help with weight management. A diversity of practices have been labelled as mindfulness, and the effects of each of these on weight management related eating behaviours are far from established. As such we need to invest in more carefully controlled experimental studies before developing and promoting additional mindfulness-based weight management interventions."

Explore further: Beware of claims that mindful eating will help you lose weight

Mindful eating is increasingly being promoted as a solution to being overweight. Mindful eating, we are promised, will help us eat less, transform our relationship with food and end our battle with weight once and for all. ...

Attending to the present moment in an accepting way (mindfulness) during pregnancy may be beneficial for both mother and her baby, as mother's subsequent mood is better and baby's birth weight is healthier. That is the main ...

Given the high stress levels, extended periods of screen time and regular social outings many Americans experience day-to-day in environments where high-calorie foods are readily available, it can be easy to fall into the ...

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Mindfulness, described as paying attention on purpose and being in the present moment with acceptance, could be an effective way to help children avoid obesity. New research published in the journal Heliyon suggests that ...

It is unclear whether mindful eating can help with weight loss, according to a new City, University of London review.

For decades, American waistlines have been expanding and there is increasing cause for alarm. Researchers from the Charles E. Schmidt College of Medicine at Florida Atlantic University make the case that metabolic syndromea ...

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Lose weight without counting calories wtvr.com What if i told you, you could lose unwanted pounds without having to count calories or eat pre-packaged meals? Dr. Jim Holland from NutriMost was back in our studio to share how his weight loss program works, and showcased a few successful stories from ...

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Keeping up with diet and nutrition is a difficult challenge for anyone, let alone college students who love beer and pizza. Diets are great but much like other addictions such as painkillers and meth, its easy to backslide into cheeseburgers. Staying strong will benefit you in the long run, but how can you do that on campus? Here are some helpful diet tips for a variety of picky eaters.

Weight Losers Photo courtesy of pixabay.com

So you want to lose weight. If youre looking to lose a healthy amount of weight, a little (a lot) hard work and persistence will go a long way.

The cafeteria has a salad bar that will be pretty decent once you spice it up with some veggies and a little dressing. Aside from that, theres usually at least one healthy item at the Kitchen like sauted spinach or kale. The hardest part here will just be avoiding eye contact with the pizza bar.

Chopd & Wrapd is the healthiest option outside of the cafeteria with salads and wraps galore. Be careful though as theyll pour the dressing until you say stop. Dont let your salad or wrap turn into soup. Stay away from adding too much fun stuff like bacon bits and croutons as well.

UNF nutrition instructor, Andrea Altice, gave some helpful advice for a variety of diets.

Get [foods] with whole grains whether its whole grain cereal or whole wheat bread, said Altice. Things with fiber, like fresh fruit and vegetables, keep you full and that will help with people trying to lose a few pounds.

Altering your diet to include whole grains and fruit is easy. When ordering a wrap or a sandwich, make sure to ask for wheat simple as that. And why not put some fruit on the side? Almost every eatery on campus has apples or bananas for sale.

Maintaining a lean diet is important, but the weight wont go away on its own. Exercise and diet go hand-in-hand and working out at least four to six times a week will produce happy results. After you lose the extra weight, you may want to take the next step: putting on muscle.

Muscle Builders Photo courtesy of pixabay.com

Curls get girls and tris get guys, its true, but gains are impossible without a proper diet to go along with your workout. Luckily most locations on campus have at least one option for the nerds who want some muscle.

Protein (brotein) is going to be your best friend through this process. Some good sources of protein include peanut butter, milk and meat. The type of meat is important though. Try to get in the habit of screaming and running when you see fried chicken or any other kind of meat. It has protein, yes, but you are far better off with lean meats such as grilled chicken or fish.

Chopd & Wrapd has the leanest and greenest options on campus. Build your own salad, build your own wraps, choose your protein (always pick grilled chicken), and youll be putting things inside you that make your body happy and healthy.

For those who really want to bulk, however, the cafeteria is the way to go. Find the grill in the back left and take as much grilled chicken as you likeafter all, its a buffet. The kitchen to the right of that usually has veggies like spinach or kale, and of course the salad bar works here too (though it isnt as good as Chopd & Wrapd).

Altice says that one of the most important parts of staying strong is a large carb intake.

People are usually saying that carbs are bad because they are trying to lose weight, when in fact you need at least 50 percent of your calories coming from carbohydrates; thats the bulk of getting your energy, said Altice. You should not be cutting out carbohydrates to lose weight.

The main focus here is to eat a lot, but eat healthy. Working out every day will increase your appetite exponentially and what better place to satiate that hunger than a buffet filled with protein (brotein).

Vegans Photo courtesy of pixabay.com

This will be by far the hardest diet to maintain with an on-campus diet. You might run into some locations that dont cater to vegans at all. The cafe does have plenty of options for those of you with meal plans.

All the way in the back right corner is the vegan bar. This tiny bar has only three stations, but they are full of food catered specifically to vegans. Choices like tofu stew, vegetable paella, kale and other tasty, animal-free treats.

The most important thing for vegans is to make sure you are getting enough of three main nutrients: protein, iron and B12. Protein can be found in tofu, beans, tofu, nuts and peanut butterand tofu. So basically if you dont like tofu, you will have a hard time being a vegan.

For B12, Altice recommends a supplement for vegans because it comes from animals. These can be bought for cheap from Publix or Walgreens.

Iron comes from red meats, chicken and fish. Altice recommends using an iron skillet to cook dried beans and peas which will absorb the iron from the cooking ware.

Cheat Day Photo courtesy of flickr.com

Everybody needs a cheat day too. Sorry, but diet or no diet, you cant just quit pizza cold turkey. Take a Sunday or Saturday every week to have some pizza at the cafeteria or Papa Johns. If you want to stay healthy while also cheating a bit, get a quesadilla from Chick-N-Grill. They taste like Christmas morning and you can fill em up with veggies.

Altice knows the importance of cheat days too.

I know you have cravings for pizza and Chick-fil-A and thats okay. If youre having it once in awhile thats fine. Pizza is okay but its about what you put on it. Dont put any high fat products on there. Put hamburger instead of pepperoni or use turkey pepperoni, said Altice.

Take it from someone who used to eat whole pizzas every chance he got, switching to a healthier diet makes you feel better inside and out. Whether you want to gain muscle, lose fat, or go vegan, you will become a better version of yourself. Whats not to like about more energy throughout the day? At the very least, youll be able to complain about having to stick to a strict eating regimen. And youll have that cheat day to look forward to as well.

For more information or news tips, or if you see an error in this story or have any compliments or concerns, contact editor@unfspinnaker.com.

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The long-term effects of alcohol (ethanol) consumption range from cardioprotective health benefits for low to moderate alcohol consumption in industrialized societies with higher rates of cardiovascular disease[1][2] to severe detrimental effects in cases of chronic alcohol abuse.[3]Health effects associated with alcohol intake in large amounts include an increased risk of alcoholism, malnutrition, chronic pancreatitis, alcoholic liver disease, and cancer. In addition, damage to the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system can occur from chronic alcohol abuse.[4][5] The long-term use of alcohol is capable of damaging nearly every organ and system in the body.[6] The developing adolescent brain is particularly vulnerable to the toxic effects of alcohol.[7] In addition, the developing fetal brain is also vulnerable, and fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASDs) may result if pregnant mothers consume alcohol.

The inverse relation in Western cultures between alcohol consumption and cardiovascular disease has been known for over 100 years.[8] Many physicians do not promote alcohol consumption, however, given the many health concerns associated with it, some suggest that alcohol should be regarded as a recreational drug, and promote exercise and good nutrition to combat cardiovascular disease.[9][10] Others have argued that the benefits of moderate alcohol consumption may be outweighed by other increased risks, including those of injuries, violence, fetal damage, liver disease, and certain forms of cancer.[11]

Withdrawal effects and dependence are also almost identical.[12] Alcohol at moderate levels has some positive and negative effects on health. The negative effects include increased risk of liver diseases, oropharyngeal cancer, esophageal cancer and pancreatitis. Conversely moderate intake of alcohol may have some beneficial effects on gastritis and cholelithiasis.[13] Of the total number of deaths and diseases caused by alcohol, most happen to the majority of the population who are moderate drinkers, rather than the heavy drinker minority.[14] Chronic alcohol misuse and abuse has serious effects on physical and mental health. Chronic excess alcohol intake, or alcohol dependence, can lead to a wide range of neuropsychiatric or neurological impairment, cardiovascular disease, liver disease, and malignant neoplasms. The psychiatric disorders which are associated with alcoholism include major depression, dysthymia, mania, hypomania, panic disorder, phobias, generalized anxiety disorder, personality disorders, schizophrenia, suicide, neurologic deficits (e.g. impairments of working memory, emotions, executive functions, visuospatial abilities and gait and balance) and brain damage. Alcohol dependence is associated with hypertension, coronary heart disease, and ischemic stroke, cancer of the respiratory system, and also cancers of the digestive system, liver, breast and ovaries. Heavy drinking is associated with liver disease, such as cirrhosis.[15] Excessive alcohol consumption can have a negative impact on aging.[16]

Recent studies have focused on understanding the mechanisms by which moderate alcohol consumption confers cardiovascular benefit.[17]

Different countries recommend different maximum quantities. For most countries, the maximum quantity for men is 140g210g per week. For women, the range is 84g140g per week.[citation needed] Most countries recommend total abstinence during pregnancy and lactation.

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Over-consumption of alcohol causes many deaths worldwide. The overall mortality from alcohol use was found to be similar to that of the effect of physical inactivity.[19] A review in 2009 found that "the net effect of alcohol consumption on health is detrimental, with an estimated 3.8% of all global deaths and 4.6% of global disability-adjusted life-years attributable to alcohol."[20]

Extensive research of Western cultures has consistently shown increased survival associated with light to moderate alcohol consumption.[21][22] A 23-year prospective study of 12,000 male British physicians aged 4878, found that overall mortality was significantly lower in current drinkers compared to non-drinkers even after correction for ex-drinkers. This benefit was strongest for ischemic heart disease, but was also noted for other vascular disease and respiratory disease. Death rate amongst current drinkers was higher for 'alcohol augmentable' disease such as liver disease and oral cancers, but these deaths were much less common than cardiovascular and respiratory deaths. The lowest mortality rate was found for consumption of 8 to 14 'units' per week. In the UK a unit is defined as 10ml or 8g of pure alcohol.[23] Higher consumption increased overall mortality rate, but not above that of non-drinkers.[24] Other studies have found age-dependent mortality risks of low-to-moderate alcohol use: an increased risk for individuals aged 1634 (due to increased risk of cancers, accidents, liver disease, and other factors), but a decreased risk for individuals ages 55+ (due to lower incidence of ischemic heart disease).[25]

This is consistent with other research that found a J-curve dependency between alcohol consumption and total mortality among middle aged and older men. While the mortality rates of ex-drinkers and heavy drinkers are significantly elevated, the all-cause mortality rates may be 15-18% lower among moderate drinkers. Although the definition of a drink varies between studies and countries, this meta-analysis found that low levels of alcohol intake, defined as 1-2 drinks per day for women and 2-4 drinks per day for men, was associated with lower mortality than abstainers.[26] This claim was challenged by another study[27][28] that found that in certain low quality studies occasional drinkers or ex-drinkers were included as abstainers, resulting in the increased mortality in that group. However, the J-curve for total and CHD mortality was reconfirmed by studies that took the mentioned confounders into account.[29][30][31][32] There seems to be little discussion of what proportion of individuals classified as abstainers are those already at greater risk of mortality due to chronic conditions and do not or cannot consume alcohol for reasons of health or harmful interactions with medication.

The observed decrease in mortality of light-to-moderate drinkers compared to never drinkers might be partially explained by superior health and social status of the drinking group;[33] however, the protective effect of alcohol in light to moderate drinkers remains significant even after adjusting for these confounders.[30][32] Additionally, confounders such as underreporting of alcohol intake might lead to the underestimation of how much mortality is reduced in light-to-moderate drinkers.[29][34]

A 2010 study confirmed the beneficial effect of moderate alcohol consumption on mortality.[32] Subjects were grouped into abstainers, light, moderate, and heavy drinkers. The order of mortality rates from lowest to highest were moderate, light, heavy, and abstainers. The increased risk for abstainers was twice the mortality rate as for moderate drinkers. This study specifically sought to control for confounding factors including the problem of ex-drinkers considered as non-drinkers.[32] According to another study, drinkers with heavy drinking occasions (six or more drinks at a time) have a 57% higher all-cause mortality than drinkers without heavy drinking occasions.[35]

Mortality is lowest among young abstainers and highest among young heavy drinkers.[36]

In contrast to studies of Western cultures, research in other cultures has yielded some opposite findings. The landmark INTERHEART Study has revealed that alcohol consumption in South Asians was not protective against CAD in sharp contrast to other populations who benefit from it.[37] In fact Asian Indians who consume alcohol had a 60% higher risk of heart attack which was greater with local spirits (80%) than branded spirits (50%).[38] The harm was observed in alcohol users classified as occasional as well as regular light, moderate, and heavy consumers.[38]

Another large study of 4465 subjects in India also confirmed the possible harm of alcohol consumption on coronary risk in men. Compared to lifetime abstainers, alcohol users had higher blood sugar (2mg/dl), blood pressure (2mm Hg) levels, and the HDL-C levels (2mg/dl) and significantly higher tobacco use (63% vs. 21%).[38]

Many countries collect statistics on alcohol-related deaths. While some categories relate to short-term effects, such as accidents, many relate to long-term effects of alcohol.

One study claims that "excessive alcohol consumption in Russia, particularly by men, has in recent years caused more than half of all the deaths at ages 15-54 years."[39] However, there are some difficulties with this study. For instance the same study also found a protective effect of heavy drinking on breast cancer mortality. This contradicts the well established scientific view that alcohol increases breast cancer risk.[40] On this account in further correspondence it was advised that "careful interpretation of mortality statistics in relation to alcohol use is needed, taking into account other relevant risk factors, incidence, and survival."[41]

The authors replied that "whether or not the apparent shortfall in breast cancer mortality among heavy drinkers is real, it accounts for only about 01% of adult deaths in Russia. Careful interpretation of it is therefore of little relevance to the findings for alcohol and overall mortality".

A governmental report from Britain has found that "There were 8,724 alcohol-related deaths in 2007, lower than 2006, but more than double the 4,144 recorded in 1991. The alcohol-related death rate was 13.3 per 100,000 population in 2007, compared with 6.9 per 100,000 population in 1991."[42] In Scotland, the NHS estimate that in 2003 one in every 20 deaths could be attributed to alcohol.[43] A 2009 report noted that the death rate from alcohol-related disease was 9,000, a number three times that of 25 years previously.[44]

A UK report came to the result that the effects of low-to-moderate alcohol consumption on mortality are age-dependent. Low-to-moderate alcohol use increases the risk of death for individuals aged 1634 (due to increased risk of cancers, accidents, liver disease, and other factors), but decreases the risk of death for individuals ages 55+ (due to decreased risk of ischemic heart disease).[45]

A study in the United Kingdom found that alcohol causes about 4% of cancer cases in the UK (12,500 cases per year).[46]

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention report, "From 20012005, there were approximately 79,000 deaths annually attributable to excessive alcohol use. In fact, excessive alcohol use is the 3rd leading lifestyle-related cause of death for people in the United States each year."[47] A 1993 study estimated US deaths through alcohol at 100,000.[48]

Another Centers for Disease Control report from 2001 estimated that medium and high consumption of alcohol led to 75,754 deaths in the United States in 2001. Low consumption of alcohol had some beneficial effects, so a net 59,180 deaths were attributed to alcohol.[49]

In a 2010 long-term study of an older population, the beneficial effects of moderate drinking were confirmed. Both abstainers and heavy drinkers showed an increased mortality of about 50% over moderate drinkers after adjustment for confounding factors.[50]

Some animal studies have found increased longevity with exposure to various alcohols. The roundworm Caenorhabditis elegans has been used as a model for aging and age-related diseases.[51] The lifespan of these worms has been shown to double when fed 0.005% ethanol, but does not markedly increase at higher concentrations. Supplementing starved cultures with n-propanol and n-butanol also extended lifespan.[52]

A meta-analysis of 34 studies found a reduced risk of mortality from coronary heart disease in men who drank 2 - 4 drinks per day and women who drank 1 - 2 drinks per day.[26] Alcohol has been found to have anticoagulant properties.[53][54]Thrombosis is lower among moderate drinkers than abstainers.[55] A meta-analysis of randomized trials found that alcohol consumption in moderation decreases serum levels of fibrinogen, a protein that promotes clot formation, while it increases levels of tissue type plasminogen activator, an enzyme that helps dissolve clots.[56] These changes were estimated to reduce coronary heart disease risk by about 24%. Another meta-analysis in 2011 found favorable changes in HDL cholesterol, adiponectin, and fibrinogen associated with moderate alcohol consumption.[57]

Also, serum levels of C-reactive protein (CRP), a marker of inflammation and predictor of CHD (coronary heart disease) risk, are lower in moderate drinkers than in those who abstain from alcohol, suggesting that alcohol consumption in moderation might have anti-inflammatory effects.[58][59][60]

Despite epidemiological evidence, many have cautioned against recommendations for the use of alcohol for health benefits. A physician from the World Health Organisation labeled such alcohol promotion as "ridiculous and dangerous".[61][62] One reviewer has noted, "Despite the wealth of observational data, it is not absolutely clear that alcohol reduces cardiovascular risk, because no randomized controlled trials have been performed. Alcohol should never be recommended to patients to reduce cardiovascular risk as a substitute for the well-proven alternatives of appropriate diet, exercise, and drugs."[63] It has been argued[who?] that the health benefits from alcohol are at best debatable and may have been exaggerated by the alcohol industry. Some investigators hold that alcohol should be regarded as a recreational drug with potentially serious adverse effects on health and should not be promoted for cardio-protection.[9]

Nevertheless, a large prospective non-randomized study has shown that moderate alcohol intake in individuals already at low risk based on body mass index, physical activity, smoking, and diet, yields further improvement in cardiovascular risk.[64] Furthermore, a multicenter randomized diet study published in 2013 found that a Mediterranean-diet, which included an encouragement to daily wine consumption in habitual drinkers, led to a dramatic reduction in cardiovascular events.[65]

A prospective study published in 1997 found "moderate alcohol consumption appears to decrease the risk of PAD in apparently healthy men."[66] In a large population-based study, moderate alcohol consumption was inversely associated with peripheral arterial disease in women but not in men. But when confounding by smoking was considered, the benefit extended to men. The study concluded "an inverse association between alcohol consumption and peripheral arterial disease was found in nonsmoking men and women."[67][68]

A study found that moderate consumption of alcohol had a protective effect against intermittent claudication. The lowest risk was seen in men who drank 1 to 2 drinks per day and in women who drank half to 1 drink per day.[69]

Drinking in moderation has been found to help those who have suffered a heart attack survive it.[70][71][72] However, excessive alcohol consumption leads to an increased risk of heart failure.[73] A review of the literature found that half a drink of alcohol offered the best level of protection. However, they noted that at present there have been no randomised trials to confirm the evidence which suggests a protective role of low doses of alcohol against heart attacks.[74] However, moderate alcohol consumption is associated with hypertension.[11] There is an increased risk of hypertriglyceridemia, cardiomyopathy, hypertension, and stroke if 3 or more standard drinks of alcohol are taken per day.[75]

Large amount of alcohol over the long term can lead to alcoholic cardiomyopathy. Alcoholic cardiomyopathy presents in a manner clinically identical to idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy, involving hypertrophy of the musculature of the heart that can lead to congestive heart failure.[76]

Alcoholics may have anemia from several causes;[77] they may also develop thrombocytopenia from direct toxic effect on megakaryocytes, or from hypersplenism.

Alcohol consumption increases the risk of atrial fibrillation, a type of abnormal heart rhythm. This remains true even at moderate levels of consumption.[78]

Chronic heavy alcohol consumption impairs brain development, causes alcohol dementia, brain shrinkage, physical dependence, alcoholic polyneuropathy (also known as 'alcohol leg'), increases neuropsychiatric and cognitive disorders and causes distortion of the brain chemistry. At present, due to poor study design and methodology, the literature is inconclusive on whether moderate alcohol consumption increases the risk of dementia or decreases it.[79] Evidence for a protective effect of low to moderate alcohol consumption on age-related cognitive decline and dementia has been suggested by some research; however, other research has not found a protective effect of low to moderate alcohol consumption.[80] Some evidence suggests that low to moderate alcohol consumption may speed up brain volume loss.[81] Chronic consumption of alcohol may result in increased plasma levels of the toxic amino acid homocysteine;[82][83] which may explain alcohol withdrawal seizures,[84] alcohol-induced brain atrophy[85] and alcohol-related cognitive disturbances.[86] Alcohol's impact on the nervous system can also include disruptions of memory and learning (see Effects of alcohol on memory), such as resulting in a blackout phenomenon.

Epidemiological studies of middle-aged populations generally find the relationship between alcohol intake and the risk of stroke to be either U- or J-shaped.[87][88][89][90] There may be very different effects of alcohol based on the type of stroke studied. The predominant form of stroke in Western cultures is ischemic, whereas non-western cultures have more hemorrhagic stroke. In contrast to the beneficial effect of alcohol on ischemic stroke, consumption of more than 2 drinks per day increases the risk of hemorrhagic stroke. The National Stroke Association estimates this higher amount of alcohol increases stroke risk by 50%.[91] "For stroke, the observed relationship between alcohol consumption and risk in a given population depends on the proportion of strokes that are hemorrhagic. Light-to-moderate alcohol intake is associated with a lower risk of ischemic stroke which is likely to be, in part, causal. Hemorrhagic stroke, on the other hand, displays a loglinear relationship with alcohol intake."[92]

Alcohol abuse is associated with widespread and significant brain lesions. Alcohol related brain damage is not only due to the direct toxic effects of alcohol; alcohol withdrawal, nutritional deficiency, electrolyte disturbances, and liver damage are also believed to contribute to alcohol-related brain damage.[93]

Excessive alcohol intake is associated with impaired prospective memory. This impaired cognitive ability leads to increased failure to carry out an intended task at a later date, for example, forgetting to lock the door or to post a letter on time. The higher the volume of alcohol consumed and the longer consumed, the more severe the impairments.[94] One of the organs most sensitive to the toxic effects of chronic alcohol consumption is the brain. In the United States approximately 20% of admissions to mental health facilities are related to alcohol-related cognitive impairment, most notably alcohol-related dementia. Chronic excessive alcohol intake is also associated with serious cognitive decline and a range of neuropsychiatric complications. The elderly are the most sensitive to the toxic effects of alcohol on the brain.[95] There is some inconclusive evidence that small amounts of alcohol taken in earlier adult life is protective in later life against cognitive decline and dementia.[96] However, a study concluded, "Our findings suggest that, despite previous suggestions, moderate alcohol consumption does not protect older people from cognitive decline."[97]

There is tentative evidence that drinking a small amount of alcohol may decrease the risk of Alzheimer's disease latter in life.[98]

WernickeKorsakoff syndrome is a manifestation of thiamine deficiency, usually as a secondary effect of alcohol abuse.[99] The syndrome is a combined manifestation of two eponymous disorders, Korsakoff's Psychosis and Wernicke's encephalopathy, named after Drs. Sergei Korsakoff and Carl Wernicke. Wernicke's encephalopathy is the acute presentation of the syndrome and is characterised by a confusional state while Korsakoff's psychosis main symptoms are amnesia and executive dysfunction.[100]Banana bags, a bag of intravenous fluids containing vitamins and minerals, can be used to mitigate these outcomes.[101][102]

Essential tremorsor, in the case of essential tremors on a background of family history of essential tremors, familial tremorscan be temporarily relieved in up to two-thirds of patients by drinking small amounts of alcohol.[103]

Ethanol is known to activate aminobutyric acid type A (GABAA) and inhibit N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) glutamate receptors, which are both implicated in essential tremor pathology[104] and could underlie the ameliorative effects.[105][106] Additionally, the effects of ethanol have been studied in different animal essential tremor models. (For more details on this topic, see Essential tremor.)

Chronic use of alcohol used to induce sleep can lead to insomnia: frequent moving between sleep stages occurs, with awakenings due to headaches and diaphoresis. Stopping chronic alcohol abuse can also lead to profound disturbances of sleep with vivid dreams. Chronic alcohol abuse is associated with NREM stage 3 and 4 sleep as well as suppression of REM sleep and REM sleep fragmentation. During withdrawal REM sleep is typically exaggerated as part of a rebound effect.[107]

High rates of major depressive disorder occur in heavy drinkers and those who abuse alcohol. Whether it is more true that major depressive disorder causes self-medicating alcohol abuse, or the increased incidence of the disorder in alcohol abusers is caused by the drinking, is not known though some evidence suggests drinking causes the disorder.[108] Alcohol misuse is associated with a number of mental health disorders and alcoholics have a very high suicide rate.[109] A study of people hospitalised for suicide attempts found that those who were alcoholics were 75 times more likely to go on to successfully commit suicide than non-alcoholic suicide attempters.[110] In the general alcoholic population the increased risk of suicide compared to the general public is 5-20 times greater. About 15 percent of alcoholics commit suicide. Abuse of other drugs is also associated with an increased risk of suicide. About 33 percent of suicides in the under 35s are due to alcohol or other substance misuse.[111]

Social skills are significantly impaired in people suffering from alcoholism due to the neurotoxic effects of alcohol on the brain, especially the prefrontal cortex area of the brain. The social skills that are impaired by alcohol abuse include impairments in perceiving facial emotions, prosody perception problems and theory of mind deficits; the ability to understand humour is also impaired in alcohol abusers.[112]

Studies have shown that alcohol dependence relates directly to cravings and irritability.[113] Another study has shown that alcohol use is a significant predisposing factor towards antisocial behavior in children.[114] Depression, anxiety and panic disorder are disorders commonly reported by alcohol dependent people. Alcoholism is associated with dampened activation in brain networks responsible for emotional processing (e.g. the amygdala and hippocampus).[115] Evidence that the mental health disorders are often induced by alcohol misuse via distortion of brain neurochemistry is indicated by the improvement or disappearance of symptoms that occurs after prolonged abstinence, although problems may worsen in early withdrawal and recovery periods.[116][117][118] Psychosis is secondary to several alcohol-related conditions including acute intoxication and withdrawal after significant exposure.[119] Chronic alcohol misuse can cause psychotic type symptoms to develop, more so than with other drugs of abuse. Alcohol abuse has been shown to cause an 800% increased risk of psychotic disorders in men and a 300% increased risk of psychotic disorders in women which are not related to pre-existing psychiatric disorders. This is significantly higher than the increased risk of psychotic disorders seen from cannabis use making alcohol abuse a very significant cause of psychotic disorders.[120] Approximately 3 percent of people who are alcohol dependent experience psychosis during acute intoxication or withdrawal. Alcohol-related psychosis may manifest itself through a kindling mechanism. The mechanism of alcohol-related psychosis is due to distortions to neuronal membranes, gene expression, as well as thiamin deficiency. It is possible in some cases that alcohol abuse via a kindling mechanism can cause the development of a chronic substance-induced psychotic disorder, i.e. schizophrenia. The effects of an alcohol-related psychosis include an increased risk of depression and suicide as well as psychosocial impairments.[119] However, moderate wine drinking has been shown to lower the risk for depression.[121]

While alcohol initially helps social phobia or panic symptoms, with longer term alcohol misuse can often worsen social phobia symptoms and can cause panic disorder to develop or worsen, during alcohol intoxication and especially during the alcohol withdrawal syndrome. This effect is not unique to alcohol but can also occur with long-term use of drugs which have a similar mechanism of action to alcohol such as the benzodiazepines, which are sometimes prescribed as tranquillizers to people with alcohol problems.[122] Approximately half of patients attending mental health services for conditions including anxiety disorders such as panic disorder or social phobia suffer from alcohol or benzodiazepine dependence. It was noted that every individual has an individual sensitivity level to alcohol or sedative hypnotic drugs and what one person can tolerate without ill health another will suffer very ill health and that even moderate drinking can cause rebound anxiety syndromes and sleep disorders. A person who is suffering the toxic effects of alcohol will not benefit from other therapies or medications as they do not address the root cause of the symptoms.[123]

Addiction to alcohol, as with any drug of abuse tested so far, has been correlated with an enduring reduction in the expression of GLT1 (EAAT2) in the nucleus accumbens and is implicated in the drug-seeking behavior expressed nearly universally across all documented addiction syndromes. This long-term dysregulation of glutamate transmission is associated with an increase in vulnerability to both relapse-events after re-exposure to drug-use triggers as well as an overall increase in the likelihood of developing addiction to other reinforcing drugs. Drugs which help to re-stabilize the glutamate system such as N-acetylcysteine have been proposed for the treatment of addiction to cocaine, nicotine, and alcohol.[124]

The impact of alcohol on weight-gain is contentious: some studies find no effect,[125] others find decreased[126] or increased effect on weight gain.

Alcohol use increases the risk of chronic gastritis (stomach inflammation);[3][127] it is one cause of cirrhosis, hepatitis, and pancreatitis in both its chronic and acute forms.

A study concluded, "Mild to moderate alcohol consumption is associated with a lower prevalence of the metabolic syndrome, with a favorable influence on lipids, waist circumference, and fasting insulin. This association was strongest among whites and among beer and wine drinkers."[128] This is also true for Asians. A J-curve association between alcohol intake and metabolic syndrome was found: "The results of the present study suggest that the metabolic syndrome is negatively associated with light alcohol consumption (115 g alcohol/d) in Korean adults". However, "odds ratios for the metabolic syndrome and its components tended to increase with increasing alcohol consumption."[129]

Research has found that drinking reduces the risk of developing gallstones. Compared with alcohol abstainers, the relative risk of gallstone disease, controlling for age, sex, education, smoking, and body mass index, is 0.83 for occasional and regular moderate drinkers (< 25 ml of ethanol per day), 0.67 for intermediate drinkers (25-50 ml per day), and 0.58 for heavy drinkers. This inverse association was consistent across strata of age, sex, and body mass index."[130] Frequency of drinking also appears to be a factor. "An increase in frequency of alcohol consumption also was related to decreased risk. Combining the reports of quantity and frequency of alcohol intake, a consumption pattern that reflected frequent intake (5-7 days/week) of any given amount of alcohol was associated with a decreased risk, as compared with nondrinkers. In contrast, infrequent alcohol intake (1-2 days/week) showed no significant association with risk."[131]

A large self-reported study published in 1998 found no correlation between gallbladder disease and multiple factors including smoking, alcohol consumption, hypertension, and coffee consumption.[132] A retrospective study from 1997 found vitamin C (ascorbic acid) supplement use in drinkers was associated with a lower prevalence of gallbladder disease, but this association was not seen in non-drinkers.[133]

Alcoholic liver disease is a major public health problem. For example, in the United States up to two million people have alcohol-related liver disorders.[134] Chronic alcohol abuse can cause fatty liver, cirrhosis and alcoholic hepatitis. Treatment options are limited and consist of most importantly discontinuing alcohol consumption. In cases of severe liver disease, the only treatment option may be a liver transplant from alcohol abstinent donors. Research is being conducted into the effectiveness of anti-TNFs. Certain complementary medications, e.g., milk thistle and silymarin, appear to offer some benefit.[134][135] Alcohol is a leading cause of liver cancer in the Western world, accounting for 32-45% of hepatic cancers. Up to half a million people in the United States develop alcohol-related liver cancer.[136][137] Moderate alcohol consumption also increases the risk of liver disease.[11]

Alcohol abuse is a leading cause of both acute pancreatitis and chronic pancreatitis.[138][139] Alcoholic pancreatitis can result in severe abdominal pain and may progress to pancreatic cancer.[140] Chronic pancreatitis often results in intestinal malabsorption, and can result in diabetes.[141]

Chronic alcohol ingestion can impair multiple critical cellular functions in the lung.[citation needed] These cellular impairments can lead to increased susceptibility to serious complications from lung disease. Recent research cites alcoholic lung disease as comparable to liver disease in alcohol-related mortality.[citation needed] Alcoholics have a higher risk of developing acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and experience higher rates of mortality from ARDS when compared to non-alcoholics.[citation needed] Despite these effects, a large prospective study has shown a protective effect of moderate alcohol consumption on respiratory mortality.[24]

Research indicates that drinking alcohol is associated with a lower risk of developing kidney stones. One study concludes, "Since beer seemed to be protective against kidney stones, the physiologic effects of other substances besides ethanol, especially those of hops, should also be examined."[142] "...consumption of coffee, alcohol, and vitamin C supplements were negatively associated with stones."[143] "After mutually adjusting for the intake of other beverages, the risk of stone formation decreased by the following amount for each 240-ml (8-oz) serving consumed daily: caffeinated coffee, 10%; decaffeinated coffee, 10%; tea, 14%; beer, 21%; and wine, 39%."[144] "...stone formation decreased by the following amount for each 240-mL (8-oz) serving consumed daily: 10% for caffeinated coffee, 9% for decaffeinated coffee, 8% for tea, and 59% for wine." (CI data excised from last two quotes.).[145]

Long term excessive intake of alcohol can lead to damage to the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system resulting in loss of sexual desire and impotence in men.[146] This is caused by reduction of testosterone from ethanol-induced testicular atrophy, resulting in increased feminisation of males and is a clinical feature of alcohol abusing males who have cirrhosis of the liver.[147]

Excessive alcohol intake can result in hyperoestrogenisation.[148] It has been speculated that alcohol beverages may contain estrogen like compounds. In men, high levels of estrogen can lead to testicular failure and the development of feminine traits including development of male breasts, called gynecomastia.[149][150] In women, increased levels of estrogen due to excessive alcohol intake have been related to an increased risk of breast cancer.[150][151]

A meta-analysis found with data from 477,200 individuals determined the dose-response relationships by sex and end point using lifetime abstainers as the reference group. The search revealed 20 cohort studies that met our inclusion criteria. A U-shaped relationship was found for both sexes. Compared with lifetime abstainers, the relative risk (RR) for type 2 diabetes among men was most protective when consuming 22 g/day alcohol (RR 0.87 [95% CI 0.761.00]) and became deleterious at just over 60 g/day alcohol (1.01 [0.711.44]). Among women, consumption of 24 g/day alcohol was most protective (0.60 [0.520.69]) and became deleterious at about 50 g/day alcohol (1.02 [0.831.26]).

Because former drinkers may be inspired to abstain due to health concerns, they may actually be at increased risk of developing diabetes, known as the sick-quitter effect. Moreover, the balance of risk of alcohol consumption on other diseases and health outcomes, even at moderate levels of consumption, may outweigh the positive benefits with regard to diabetes.

Additionally, the way in which alcohol is consumed (i.e., with meals or bingeing on weekends) affects various health outcomes. Thus, it may be the case that the risk of diabetes associated with heavy alcohol consumption is due to consumption mainly on the weekend as opposed to the same amount spread over a week.[152] In the United Kingdom "advice on weekly consumption is avoided".

Also, a twenty-year twin study from Finland has shown that moderate alcohol consumption may reduce the risk of type 2 diabetes in men and women. However, binge drinking and high alcohol consumption was found to increase the risk of type 2 diabetes in women. [153] A study in mice has suggested a beneficial effect of alcohol in promoting insulin sensitivity.[154]

Regular consumption of alcohol is associated with an increased risk of gouty arthritis[155][156] and a decreased risk of rheumatoid arthritis.[157][158][159][160][161] Two recent studies report that the more alcohol consumed, the lower the risk of developing rheumatoid arthritis. Among those who drank regularly, the one-quarter who drank the most were up to 50% less likely to develop the disease compared to the half who drank the least.[162]

The researchers noted that moderate alcohol consumption also reduces the risk of other inflammatory processes such as cardiovascualar disease. Some of the biological mechanisms by which ethanol reduces the risk of destructive arthritis and prevents the loss of bone mineral density (BMD), which is part of the disease process.[163]

A study concluded, "Alcohol either protects from RA or, subjects with RA curtail their drinking after the manifestation of RA".[164] Another study found, "Postmenopausal women who averaged more than 14 alcoholic drinks per week had a reduced risk of rheumatoid arthritis..."[165]

Moderate alcohol consumption is associated with higher bone mineral density in postmenopausal women. "...Alcohol consumption significantly decreased the likelihood [of osteoporosis]."[166] "Moderate alcohol intake was associated with higher BMD in postmenopausal elderly women."[167] "Social drinking is associated with higher bone mineral density in men and women [over 45]."[168] However, alcohol abuse is associated with bone loss.[169][170]

Chronic excessive alcohol abuse is associated with a wide range of skin disorders including urticaria, porphyria cutanea tarda, flushing, cutaneous stigmata of cirrhosis, psoriasis, pruritus, seborrheic dermatitis and rosacea.[171]

A 2010 study concluded, "Nonlight beer intake is associated with an increased risk of developing psoriasis among women. Other alcoholic beverages did not increase the risk of psoriasis in this study."[172]

There is a protective effect of alcohol consumption against active infection with H. pylori[173] In contrast, alcohol intake (comparing those who drink > 30g of alcohol per day to non-drinkers) is not associated with higher risk of duodenal ulcer.[174] Excessive alcohol consumption seen in alcoholics is a known risk factor for pneumonia.

A study on the common cold found that "Greater numbers of alcoholic drinks (up to three or four per day) were associated with decreased risk for developing colds because drinking was associated with decreased illness following infection. However, the benefits of drinking occurred only among nonsmokers. [...] Although alcohol consumption did not influence risk of clinical illness for smokers, moderate alcohol consumption was associated with decreased risk for nonsmokers."[175]

Another study concluded, "Findings suggest that wine intake, especially red wine, may have a protective effect against common cold. Beer, spirits, and total alcohol intakes do not seem to affect the incidence of common cold."[176]

In 1988 the International Agency for Research on Cancer (Centre International de Recherche sur le Cancer) of the World Health Organization classified alcohol as a Group 1 carcinogen, stating "There is sufficient evidence for the carcinogenicity of alcoholic beverages in humans.... Alcoholic beverages are carcinogenic to humans (Group 1)."[177] The U.S. Department of Health & Human Services National Toxicology Program in 2000 listed alcohol as a known carcinogen.[178]

It was estimated in 2006 that "3.6% of all cancer cases worldwide are related to alcohol drinking, resulting in 3.5% of all cancer deaths."[179] A European study from 2011 found that one in 10 of all cancers in men and one in 33 in women were caused by past or current alcohol intake.[180][181] The World Cancer Research Fund panel report Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity and the Prevention of Cancer: a Global Perspective finds the evidence "convincing" that alcoholic drinks increase the risk of the following cancers: mouth, pharynx and larynx, oesophagus, colorectum (men), breast (pre- and postmenopause).[182]

Acetaldehyde, a metabolic product of alcohol, is suspected to promote cancer. Typically the liver eliminates 99% of acetaldehyde produced. However, liver disease and certain genetic enzyme deficiencies result in high acetaldehyde levels. Heavy drinkers who are exposed to high acetaldehyde levels due to a genetic defect in alcohol dehydrogenase have been found to be at greater risk of developing cancers of the upper gastrointestinal tract and liver.[183] A review in 2007 found "convincing evidence that acetaldehyde... is responsible for the carcinogenic effect of ethanol... owing to its multiple mutagenic effects on DNA."[184] Acetaldehyde can react with DNA to create DNA adducts including the Cr-Pdg adduct. This Cr-PdG adduct "is likely to play a central role in the mechanism of alcoholic beverage related carcinogenesis."[185] Some have pointed out that even moderate levels of alcohol consumption are associated with an increased risk of certain forms of cancer.[11]

Fetal alcohol syndrome or FAS is a birth defect that occurs in the offspring of women who drink alcohol during pregnancy. Drinking heavily or during the early stages of prenatal development has been conclusively linked to FAS; moderate consumption is associated with fetal damage.[11] Alcohol crosses the placental barrier and can stunt fetal growth or weight, create distinctive facial stigmata, damaged neurons and brain structures, and cause other physical, mental, or behavioural problems.[186] Fetal alcohol exposure is the leading known cause of intellectual disability in the Western world.[187] Alcohol consumption during pregnancy is associated with brain insulin and insulin-like growth factor resistance.[169]

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HARLINGEN Are you overweight? Are you tired of being overweight? Have you thought about getting surgery to help you lose weight, but, youre not quite ready to commit to surgery? Then you may want to consider the newest method of weight loss assistance, the ORBERA Intragastric Balloon System, now available at The Weight Loss Center at Harlingen Medical Center.

The award-winning and nationally recognized Harlingen Medical Center, along with Jason Phillips, M.D., a leading Gastroenterologist in the Rio Grande Valley, and, Partner-In-Care to Harlingen Medical Center, has launched the ORBERA Intragastric Balloon System as part of its Weight Loss Center. The Intragastric Balloon System, also known a water balloon, is a tool to help you lose weight and give you the upper hand in the battle against excess weight.

The ORBERA Intragastric Balloon System is a weight loss device that utilizes a balloon to occupy space in the stomach, which will give the sensation of being full keeping food consumption to a minimum. The balloon is tightly held together, through a minimally invasive endoscopic procedure, and inserted through the mouth, down the esophagus, and into the stomach. This is not a surgical procedure. There is no cutting and no stitching. The patient is placed under mild sedation while the procedure is performed. Once the balloon reaches the stomach it is filled with salt water (saline), so that the balloon expands into a spherical shape and occupies at least half of the stomach. The balloon can be filled with 400 to 700 cc of saline, but, will be filled with an amount that is appropriate for the patient in accordance with their body type and size.

The sensation of being full, with the installation of the ORBERA Intragastric Balloon System, is to help patients develop habits of portion control, and, aid in weight loss, said Amy Flores, Chief Nursing Officer at Harlingen Medical Center. The balloon will be most beneficial to patients when they partner this procedure with a disciplined program of diet and exercise. The gastric balloon has shown to help patients lose more weight than is possible with diet and exercise alone.

According to Apollo Endosurgery, Inc., the maker of the ORBERA Intragastric Balloon System, it is designed to be a temporary tool to give patients a mechanism to reach a weight that is more in alignment with their stature. The balloon will only be in the patients stomach for a total of six (6) months, after that, it will be removed by the same way that it went in.

The individual who seeks this weight loss system, as an option for them, must understand that this is to help give them an advantage to losing weight. They must follow a diet plan and exercise regimen to achieve success, said Eva Selvera, Registered Dietitian at The Weight Loss Center at Harlingen Medical Center. While they have the balloon system in place our team of healthcare providers will be here to guide them as they go through the process and develop their new lifestyle. Lifestyle that includes eating the right foods, taking vitamins and minerals, and maintaining an active lifestyle.

Obesity is an epidemic in our country that carries many of the same risks as smoking, said Dr. Phillips. As physicians, we tell our patients to lose weight. This is an easy recommendation to state but difficult to achieve and maintain. I wanted to find a new method to combat this epidemic that was more effective than just telling my patients that they need to lose weight. The ORBERA Intragastric Balloon System provides a non-surgical method to lose weight and learn lifestyle changes to keep the weight off.

According to Apollo Endosurgery, Inc., patients who have used the ORBERA Intragastric Balloon System have shown to lose an average of 10.2% of their body weight. This is an average of 21.8 pounds. And, the majority of them have managed to maintain the weight off.

The most noted discomfort of the intragastric balloon is nausea. Apollo Endosurgery, Inc., advises that some patients may feel nauseated for a few days after the procedure, but, it will subside. They too may have some vomiting and/or abdominal discomfort, but, it will subside within 24 to 48 hours.

The ORBERA Intragastric Balloon System is a great tool to help people who want to lose weight, live healthier lives, and regain an active lifestyle, said Patsy Muniz, Coordinator of The Weight Loss Center at Harlingen Medical Center. The goal with our program is to help our patients lead healthier lives. We can help them accomplish this with various service options, whether its a gastric bypass, lapband, sleeve, or balloon. We are here to create enduring partnerships with patients in order to secure long-term success.

The balloon facilitates the weight loss, but the real strength in this year-long program is developing healthy lifestyle changes, added Dr. Phillips. To be successful long term, our patients in this program will need to commit to follow-up for counseling after the procedure itself.

The ORBERA Intragastric Balloon System is not covered by most health insurance providers.

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Weight Loss Balloon System arrives at HMC - Valley morning Star

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AUSTIN, Texas--(BUSINESS WIRE)--

There are millions of Americans struggling with weight loss, no matter how hard they diet and exercise. AlternaScript has figured out how to help make it easier for Americans to lose weight, shared Kathy Ireland, supermodel and entrepreneur.

This Smart News Release features multimedia. View the full release here: http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20170413005246/en/

AlternaScript is a health tech startup founded in 2013 based in Austin, TX. Lucas Siegel, 26-year-old CEO and co-founder, started the company in college because he wanted to create products that made the world a better place while helping people get and stay healthy. AlternaScript has since launched four products that allow people to not just exist, but to thrive. The company is driven by purpose, donating 5% of their profits to help people recovering from off-label prescription drug abuse.

As a child, Siegel immensely struggled with weight and was thought of as chubby. Like many Americans, he had a problematic relationship with food and sugar. Siegel said, I didnt understand the fundamental building blocks of nutrition and successful strategies for weight management. He tried and failed every fad diet, one after the other.

A year and a half ago, Siegel was at a gas station outside of Austin, Texas and looked around. He realized that everyone was immensely overweight. This was shocking and horrifying, yet all too familiar. He began analyzing what was on the shelves and what people were buying, then it became pretty clear what was going on. Americas food system is poisoned with highly addictive food scientifically designed with specific amounts of sugar to get people addicted to them. The result is Americans are victims of bad food choices out of convenience and misleading advertising. This was a turning point for Siegel. It was at this moment, he had to create a product that could help people get fit again, but in a natural and healthy way that was truly sustainable.

NatureThin is the latest addition to AlternaScripts portfolio. Siegel developed NatureThin after an incredibly frustrating experience testing hundreds of weight management products and ingredients that did not work. With leading researchers, biochemists, and nutritionists, AlternaScript developed a natural way for people to get and stay thin that was supported by science and made of the earth. NatureThin is a botanical based weight management multivitamin and contains no stimulants. It is a vegetarian combination of essential vitamins and shortfall nutrients that have over ten years of research supporting its efficacy, as well as two gold standard, double blind placebo controlled clinical studies on healthy human populations. Shortfall nutrients are identified by the USDA as nutrients Americans are deficient in such as Vitamin D and potassium, both of which have been scientifically curated in NatureThin.

We took over 200 botanicals and injected them into human fat cells to see if they would shrink. After looking at these results, we found three that did. Then we wanted to see if these three worked together to reduce fat cells even more than when alone. Our scientists tested different concentration levels of each ingredient when blended together to see which formulation would result in maximum fat cell reduction, said Lucas Siegel, CEO, AlternaScript.

NatureThin is going to help millions of Americans lose weight because it uses premium targeted botanicals and vitamins that have been meticulously studied as key ingredients in supporting healthy weight loss, stated Dr. Catherine Adams Hutt, certified food scientist, and registered dietician. Results were recorded in as little as two weeks and remained constant beyond the typical twelve week weight loss plateau in both men and women. Since starting NatureThin, I've lost 8 pounds and have been religiously taking my OptiMind and feel (with three kids) like I have the energy to keep up ALL DAY! The products are real and the people are awesome! The thing I love most about NatureThin is that it works. That, and the honesty behind it, said Meghan Arnold from Charlotte, Texas.

According to Dr. Barbara Davis, molecular biologist and registered dietician, Participants in the trial of the active ingredient in NatureThin experienced a total weight loss of nearly twelve pounds and a two inch reduction in waist circumference by the end of sixteen weeks. Davis added, This trial demonstrates steady, consistent weight loss starting early, and supporting long-term success with a targeted reduction in waist circumference, and maintenance of lean body mass.

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I just turned 68, and as I get older, its harder to maintain my ideal weight with a slower metabolism. I cant seem to lose weight where I want to. Since discovering NatureThin, Ive lost 12 pounds in the past month with easy adjustments like cutting back on sugar and going on walks, shares Patricia Heighton, former Miss San Diego and mother of six.

All AlternaScript products undergo a rigorous testing and verification process to guarantee high quality standards and are made in the USA in cGMP certified labs with purity testing of all ingredients. To continue its commitment to holistic well-being and sustainability, AlternaScript produces NatureThin and all their offerings in a facility powered by over 200 rooftop solar panels and uses 40% less energy than conventional manufacturing plants.

About AlternaScript

AlternaScript is a premium health tech company disrupting the healthcare industry by challenging traditional business models. AlternaScripts direct-to-consumer model leverages technology, scientific advancements, and personalized care to modernize the health industry and bring products direct to consumers. The company has built a philosophy focused on personalized care, guided by clinical studies, hard science, individual thought, and patience.

Since starting in 2013, AlternaScript has given away over $2 million in free samples to their rapidly expanding customer base. AlternaScripts Customer Love Team is available 24/7 to provide quality support by real, thinking humans. Other AlternaScript products include Americas best selling nootropic, OptiMind; a premium restorative non-habit forming sleep aid, RestUp; and a ground-breaking biome cleansing probiotic and prebiotic, NuCulture. All products have a 100% happiness guarantee with a no-questions asked, full refund policy.

AlternaScript donates 5% of profits to helping people in recovery from off-label prescription drug abuse and addiction through the AlternaScript Recovery Fund, a network of charities specializing in prescription drug rehabilitation.

View source version on businesswire.com: http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20170413005246/en/

MULTIMEDIA AVAILABLE:http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20170413005246/en/

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AlternaScript Helps Makes It Easier for Americans to Lose Weight - Yahoo Finance

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